God, the Supreme Being, is as much
worshipped as the Divine Mother as He is
worshipped as the Divine Father. The Divine
Mother is synonymous with Shakti, the Divine
Power that manifests, sustains and transforms
the universe as the unifying force of existence.
The Divine Mother exists in all beings as
intelligence, mercy and beauty. She is the
embodiment of the all-existential power. All
these powers are the glorious attributes of the
Supreme Being who
is the main source of
this creation. So Devi
worship is the
worship of God's
glory; His greatness
and supremacy over
the universe.
Devi worship
does not belong to any
particular cult. Devi
Mata is worshipped
by one and all irrespective of any distinction.
Truly speaking, all beings of the universe are
Shakti worshippers, for there is none in this
world who does not love power in some form
or other. Scientists have proved that everything
on the earth is the manifestation of a pure
imperishable energy. This energy is nothing
other than the manifestation of the Divine
Shakti, which exists in every form of our
existence. Since this Shakti can not be
worshipped in its essential nature, it is
worshipped through various manifestations as
the symbols of creation, preservation and
destruction. Shakti in relation to these
manifestations is worshipped as Saraswati,
Lakshmi and Kali. Although they are
represented as three distinct images, they are
virtually one and
worship of one form is
adored as the worship
of the other forms.
The concept of Devi
worship is not of
recent origin. It was in
vogue in the ancient
past. Reference to
Devi worship as
Goddess Durga is
made in the Rig Veda,
and the great epic, the Mahabharat. The hymns
devoted to Devi worship in the Rig Veda, extol
the Devi Mother as Devi Durga, the
embodiment of the supreme Divine Power. In
the Mahabharat, She is adored as the sister of
Lord Krishna. In the Kanopanishad, She
appears as Goddess Uma, the Divine consort
God as Divine Mother
Durgamadhab Dash
2
Orissa Review * October - 2004
of Lord Siva. Yudhisthir worshipped Devi
Mata for relief from sufferings during their
exile. Lord Krishna advised Arjun to pray to
Devi Mata before the commencement of the
Mahabharat war. The glory and the aura of the
Divine Mother is devotedly sung in the Devi
Mahatmya - the Sapta Sati- which in spiritual
values is equal to the Bhagvatgita. The Goddess
as the Divine Mother is every year worshipped
in a nine-day festival, popularly known as
Navaratri Puja during the first nine days of the
bright fortnight in the month of Aswin. This
period falls in September-October in the
English calendar. The adoration of the Devi
during this period is glorified as the mystical
worship of the Shakti. This is also known as
Shakti Puja, which is the worship of the
inherent power of the Supreme Divine. This
virtually transcends the inherent ritualism of
the Veda-Samhitas and Purans.
In the Devi Mahatmya, the Devi is
described in different forms with revelations
in Her primordial qualities, called Tamas,
Rajas, and Sattva. These three forms are
equated with the manifestations of the Universal
Powers of Action (Kriya), Desire (Iccha) and
Knowledge (Jnana). In Her first form, it is said,
She woke-up Lord Vishnu from His cosmic
sleep to encounter the Asuras (demons), Madhu
and Kaithava who had risen in the cosmic
ocean. In Her second form, she met the forces
of the demon, Mahisasura and slew him with
Her superb divine forces. In Her third form,
she killed the Asuras, Sumbha and Nisumbha
with their forces and brought peace to gods in
heaven and solace to mankind on the earth.
Thus as described in the Devi
Mahatmya, the Devi in Her monotheistic divine
form was blended with the divine glee of all
the 'Devas' and She combated the evil forces
and fought them
off one after
another with
Her resplendent
divine prowess.
She played all
the parts in Her
distinct role as
a warrior
queen. The
goddess, though
described as
young, beautiful
and caring was
savage-like in
Her intent and
purpose, while
t h r o w i n g
herself in to
various battles.
The term,
'Devi' in Hinduism is an elastic esoteric
ideology. Although it refers to a female
goddess, as described in the Devi Mahatmya,
She is adored as the Divine Mother of the entire
universe. The forms like Durga, Chandi,
Mahalaxmi, Maha Saraswati and so on are but
Her various divine forms. Each form of the
Devi has a distinctive role meant for a definite
purpose. Each form in this sense is also
identified as the Ultimate Reality of the
universe. In the Devi Mahatmya, "Durga' for
instance is described and adored as one aspect
of the Divine Mother. She is the consort of Lord
Shiva. She is generally represented with ten
arms, seated on a lion and some times on a
tiger. She is worshipped as the protector of
the universe destroying the demons of
ignorance and giving blessings of divine love
and knowledge. Kali is another aspect of the
Divine Mother. She is another form of the
Dasabhuja Durga from Konark
(now in British Museum, London)
3
Orissa Review * October - 2004
consort of Lord
Shiva. She is
always shown
as standing on
the chest of
Lord Shiva.
Around Her
waist, She
wears a garland
of human hands.
S i m i l a r l y
around Her
neck, she wears
a garland of
human heads.
She has four
arms; the lower
left hand holds a human head. She holds a
saber in Her upper right hand. She offers boons
to Her divine children with the other upper
hand. She makes a sign that dispels fear. She
deals out death as She creates and preserves
with Her primordial prowess. Kali's role has
a definite purpose. She deals out death as She
creates and preserves our life. She also
destroys ignorance and gives blessings and
liberation to those who earnestly seek it. While
Lord Shiva represents the Absolute, Kali
represents the dynamic or the relative aspect
of the Supreme Reality.
Each form of the Divine Mother is thus
an embodiment of the Supreme Divinity. One
form may appear different from the other. But
in spirit, each such form is a mystery of
reproduction of life springing from nothing,
verily the Supreme Primordial Prakriti. Every
mystic who has experienced godhead,
personally, intensely and unmistakably would
assure us that the experience of every such form
is as real as any other form of the Supreme
Reality.
Ramakrishna Paramahansa called the
Divine Mother by more than a dozen names as
if to demonstrate to the world that the
particulars of any dogma and tradition are all
but meaningless expositions compared with the
vision of Mahamaya who may be Kali at one
time and Durga at another. But the Mother in
any form is indeed that monotheistic deity who
creates the universe and holds it within Her
being and yet resides within the living beings
and objects. Be that as it may, behind the veils
of the myriad deities in human forms and
personalities, there is formless God who is one
for the entire universe and known as Brahman,
the Satchidananda in the linking of Existence
(Sat), Knowledge (Chit) and Anand (Bliss).
Descriptions of the Shakti and the
Brahman are exactly the same except on one
particular point. While the Brahman is infinite,
the Shakti is ever changing as a vibrant force
of the Brahman. This vibrant force is the cause
of the creation of the universe. In this sense the
Brahman and the Shakti are inexplicably
interrelated. The two are thus one like fire and
its power to burn.
According to the Eastern Indian
Cosmology, the Devi's creative force brings
out and develops this universe. The said
creative force also draws back in to itself the
whole of the universe on to the blissful
unchanging being of the Brahman, only to spew
out again after an age (Yuga) in the cosmic game
of evolution and dissolution. This is what is
known as the process of expansion and
contraction of our creation. The expansion is
akin to evolution of the universe and the
contraction is equal to dissolution of the
universe. All this happens due to the
personification of the primal energy of the
Devi. This is known as the Maya Shakti of the
Brahman. We worship the same Maya Shakti
Mahisamardini Durga (now in
Philadelphia Museum of Art)
4
Orissa Review * October - 2004
during the Navaratri Puja in the month of
Aswin. "Devi Mata" is also known as
Mahamaya, the mother of the universe.
According to scriptures She is the supreme
divine will. She veils our vision of the
Brahman, the Absolute Reality of the universe.
Again She is also throb of His grace which
rends this veil, leading us to realize the identity
of Jivatma with Paramatma.
Ramakrishna Paramahansa had
envisioned this sacred prowess by using his
own descriptions. He has spoken in his various
conversations on the close and the
unchangeable link between the Shakti and the
Brahman. In Ramakrishna's phrase, the
"Brahman is without change. The Shakti is the
creative energy. She is ever changing. But both
are one like the two sides of the same coin".
Ramakrishna knew from his own experience
that all the different forms of God are different
perspectives of one unchanging Godhead. But
Ramakrishna spoke most frequently of the
Mother because this was the prospective that
he most cherished in his life. Ramakrishna's
experience and the experiences of the other
mystics assure us that many of the perspectives
of the Godhead open up to a Mother Goddess,
who functions in the lives of Her devotees, as
their protector, companion and mentor.
The conception of the cosmic spirit as
the Divine Mother is very easy to understand.
The Motherhood of the Supreme Being is a
spontaneous urge of every human being who
comes to this world in the natural order of the
evolutionary process. Love of the Mother is
most logical in every human being. It is an easy
step to god realization. That which is beyond
our knowledge is the transiently Para Brahman.
That which one can know well in the spiritual
order through our mind is the Mother in the
manifestation of Her various forms. She is the
Maha Shakti at the back of Her every
manifestation. She is the Brahma Shakti
manifested to us through the form of Saraswati.
She is Bishnu Shakti manifested to us through
the form of Lakshmi. She is also Shiva Shakti
manifested to us through the form of Parvati.
The Devi Mata is the combination of
both Vidya and Avidya in Her supreme form.
As the symbol of Avidya, She is omnipresent
in the form of Cosmic delusion. And, at the
same time as the symbol of Vidya, She is
adored as the supreme force of cosmic
deliverance, leading the Jiva from the
mysterious spiritual deliverance to spiritual
wisdom. What is the significance of the sharp
knife and the noose, She holds in Her divine
manifestation? The noose represents the
concept of Her binding force. The noose is the
symbol of Maya, which binds us to our material
surroundings. This casts a veil on our
conscience for which although we know our
goal, we are ultimately away from it, because
of the binding
force of Maya.
The knife She
holds represents
the weapon,
which can snap
the noose and lead
the Jiva on the
path of God
realization. So the
Devi Mother is the
embodiment of
both the
concordant forces
of Vidya and
Avidya. The
devotees who
worship Her in the spiritual order achieve Her
grace and attain Mokshya and remain free from
Goddess Kichakeswari, Khiching,
Dist. Mayurbhanj
5
Orissa Review * October - 2004
the bondage of birth and death in the wheel of
human procreation. The Supreme Mother leads
them safe and sound on the path of spiritual
knowledge. But those who are mesmerized and
struck by Her binding force of Maya, lead an
awful life full of sarcasm and are born again
and again on this earth with endless trails of
material agonies. This is the Para and the Apara
forms of the Divine Mother a la the two sides
of the same coin. We should understand the Devi
in this way and worship Her divine prowess
as Para Shakti full of all-loving and
compassionate Spirit.
A question may generally come up: if
the Divine Mother is all-compassionate, why
then She should appear dreadful in Her
metaphysical form?
The answer to this query is very simple.
Kali, as the semblance of Devi Mata, may
appear to be a dreaded deity. But in spirit She
is not like the one we see Her in outward
appearance. She is worshipped in Para Bhakti
as a divine force ensuring victory of the good
over the evil. Kali Mata stands for destruction
of the evil. Durga also stands for the same
mystical purpose. She is the destroyer of
darkness to emit light. She is the destroyer of
ignorance to bestow knowledge. She destroys
all pains, all miseries and all tribulations to
bestow bliss and to free the Jiva from this
mundane world. All that we see in Her outward
appearance are the symbols of Her extricating
prowess ever vibrant and alert to annihilate
all the evil forces of the life like ego and other
such emotions of the senses. So we pray to the
Mother in Her symbolically terrible form for
Her gracious benediction for victory over the
mind. This is the spirit behind Durga Puja. This
indeed is the moral content of the Durga
Saptasati which is read in great devotion during
the nine days of Navaratri worship. The Durga
Saptasati is a wonderful allegory. We may cite
here the case of Swami Vivekananda who
worshipped Kali Mata in Her terrible form.
But when he perceived Her presence, he
perceived it in the most gracious dispensation.
The story goes like this.
Swami Vivekananda was known in the
name of Naren in his childhood days. When
his father died, he was succumbed to myriad
wants and miseries in life. Naren had elders
who advised him to meet Rama Krushna
Paramahansa known for his occult powers for
alleviation of his distressed conditions. He met
the revered monk in Dakhineswar Temple. The
Paramahansa received him with cordiality and
affection. Naren expressed his helpless plight
and the extremities of his pecuniary wants to
Ramakrishna. The great monk advised him to
meet Kali Mata in the temple and represent his
predicament. Naren prayed to the Divine
Mother as advised. The Mother at last appeared
in Her gracious form, ever radiant to help Her
ardent devotee. When he saw the Divine
Mother, he was immensely lost in the surges
of divine ecstasy. Naren forgot all his material
necessities for which he had gone to
Dakhineswar Temple. When the Mother called
on him to ask for a boon, Naren said that he
needed Her divine mercy to reach the goal of
Light, which is the ultimate goal of life. The
Devi Mata granted him the boon and
disappeared.
We learn from the divine experience of
Naren a noble lesson of life. As one knows
well, Naren had gone to Dakhineswar Temple
to request Ramakrishna Paramahansa to bestow
on him material prosperity of life. But when
he had the visionary experience of the Divine
Mother, he forgot the actual purpose and he
6
Orissa Review * October - 2004
became deeply concerned about the spiritual
needs of his life and asked the Divine Mother
for grant of knowledge and devotion.
Ramakrishna, when he came to know of this
said, "Naren, with the glint of this boon,
bestowed on you by the Divine Mother, you
have all the wants of your life entirely fulfilled.
So go back home; you will have no more
worries in life".
This is the rich outcome of Para Bhakti
in the Sadhana of devotion and knowledge. The
terror-form of the Mother ultimately came out
as the most benign and magnanimous Mother,
when Naren had Her "darshan" in Dakhineswar
Temple.
Swami Chhidananda Saraswati Maharaj
has explained this allegorical connotation from
a different angle. He says that in the modern
age we have many antibiotics as medicines.
These are called lifesavers and millions of
people look upon them with feelings of
gratitude as they are the curative medicines of
many critical diseases. But they are nonetheless
terrible and destructive in nature. So on the
cover of every such medicine, a word of
caution is written that they should be taken with
care under the prescriptions of qualified
physicians. The antibiotics are said to be
destructive because when they go inside the
stomach, they kill the germs and thereby the
disease is removed and one is cured of the
ailment. Swamiji Maharaj says, would it then
be correct to call these antibiotics destructive
in nature? Yes, we may call them destructive
because they destroy the germs. But their
ultimate purpose is something noble, the
purpose being to cure the disease and restore
good health. In the same analogy, Mother Kali
may appear terrible and destructive in Her
outward appearance for annihilating the evil
from the universe. But for that reason, we cannot
call the Devi Mata a destructive force. In Her
destruction, one can see the light of a
resplendent regeneration. She destroys but
destroys ignorance in order to bestow
knowledge. She destroys darkness, so that we
can see light in the ultimate run. Thus we see
in the Divine Mother a glorified spiritual being,
ever intent upon giving deliverance from
delusion. This is the sacred theme of the
Navaratri Puja.
The Devi Mata in Her divine form as
Laxmi is worshipped in the second three days
of Navaratri Puja as the goddess of wealth and
prosperity. She is adored as the preservative
power of God as Vishnu. She is also
reverentially venerated as Sita, the consort of
Rama, Rukmuni, the consort of Krishna and
Radha, the Chinmayi Shakti of the Vaishnab
cult. The Devi Mata is worshipped in the last
three days of the nine-day worship as
Saraswati, the creative power of God as
Brahma. She is hailed to represent Vak ( Speech
) in the Rig Veda Samhita and as the presiding
deity over arts, music and literature.
Let us pray to the Devi Mata to illuminate
our hearts as Budhi. Let us all pray to Her to
keep alive the great truth in our hearts and
remove the veil of delusion thrown over our
consciousness. Let us pray to the Divine Mother
to manifest to us as Vidya-Maya as She
manifested to Swami Vivekananda. If She has
Her radiant eyes on us, then all our delusion,
all our sorrows and all our darkness would
come to an end and we shall see Her as
Sachidananda Para Brahman.
Durgamadhab Dash lives at C-80, Palasapalli,
Bhubaneswar
7
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Tantricism in some form or other evolved in
almost all the countries of the world. But in
India it has a speciality forming a significant
part of the country's religious system in points
of time and space. The ancient and modern
scholars have stated different derivative
meanings of the
word 'Tantra'.
According to M.M.
Haraprasad Sastri
it means shortening
of abbreviation like
algebraic forms of
formula. The word
is traced from the
term 'tan' (to
spread) and 'tatri'
(to explain). Thus
the original
connotation of the
term is scientific.
Tantra is a science
of religion and philosophy of science. Tantra
is Sadhana. In order to understand Tantra, its
antiquity, significance etc in the religious system
of India, we have to touch upon the ancient
civilisations, when the early men derived the
magical power from the natural phenomena.
Tantra is generally categorised into
Agama, Nigama and Yamala. The term Agama
is explained as that class of tantra which is
addressed to Parvati by Lord Siva, whereas
Nigama refers to tantra spoken by Parvati to
Lord Siva. Yamalas tantra were designed to
mean the worship of united deities. Varahi
tantra says Agamas deal with seven topics -
C o s m o l o g y ,
D e s t r u c t i o n ,
Worship of God,
S a d h a n a ,
Purascharana, the
six block rites
and four-fold
m e d i t a t i o n .
Yamala tantra, on
the other hand,
deals with
c o s m o l o g y ,
a s t r o n o m y ,
division of castes,
yogadharma etc.
Agamas are of various types. Shaktisangama
tantra records Saiva, Sakha, Ganapatya, Saura,
Vaisnava, Mahavira, Pasupata etc. (of eleven
types) and Savara of (eleven types). Agamas
are Vedic or non-Vedic. It is divided into
Tantra, Yamala and Damara. Damaras are of
six types - Yoga Damara, Siva Damara, Durga
Damara, Saraswata Damara, Brahma Damara
and Gandharva Damara. In accordance with
Origin of Tantricism and Sixty-Four Yogini
Cult in Orissa
Dr. Janmejay Choudhury
Chausathi Yogini Pitha, Ranipur Jharial
8
Orissa Review * October - 2004
the sects the Tantras are classified.
Geographical conditions are also responsible
in classification of Tantra, viz. Visnukranta,
Rathakranta and Asvakranta.
There are three trends of tantras :
Dakshina, Vama and Madhyama. Like this tantra
has a vast mass of literature covering wide
range of heterogenous systems. In the
Vamadeva Tantra Parvati said to Lord Siva 'you
have explained to me crores of tantras each of
which has a special features of its own." Really
it is difficult to state the nons of tantras. Each
tantra has its philosophy, own system of ritual
practice and deity etc. As a matter of fact, the
tantras deal with the worship of not only
female deities but with various male deities
as well. And we have really works known as
tantras belonging to various sects like the
Saivas, the Vaisnavas, the Ganapatyas, the
Sauras etc. It is true that this literature is
generally known among the followers of
various sects as 'Agama' as well. The Tantrikas
consider tantra as the fifth Veda. Bhaskar Ray
in his book 'Setubandha' describes the
'Chausathi Mahamayavi Tantras' or '64 Yogini'
as Veda.
The culture of sixty-four Yoginis was the
exuberant expression of extreme form of
tantricism in about 8th century A.D. when the
occult and esoteric Sadhana reached the highest
peak. Origin of sixty-four yoginis is shrouded
in mystery. The vedic and post-vedic literature
mention the names of some individual yoginis,
but never sixty-four manifestations together.
Through the process of transformation the cult
came into existence and exerted an important
niche in the Sakta-tantric pantheon. The puranas
and Upa-purans which are the source of
different cults are referred to find out the origin
of sixty-four yoginis, who are basically the
mother-goddesses. The markendeya Purana
relates that the gods created goddesses from
their own Shaktis to assist Durga in killing the
demon Raktavirya, the ally of Sumbha, who
had the power to multiply himself into demons
of the same stature and prowess from the drops
of blood oozing out of his wonds and touching
the ground. They were yoginis, who drank
blood of the demon before felling on the
grounds. The same story is recorded in the
Mahabhagavata Purana to kill Andhaka demon,
who had the power of creating numerous
demons from his oozed blood touching the
ground. Siva's pasupata weapon proved futile.
Having no alternative Siva propitiated
Nrusimha to come to his rescuse. Lord
Nrusimha created hundred and eight terrible
goddess to help Ambika to kill Andhaka demon.
After Andhaka was killed the new goddesses
moved in a campaign of destruction in the
Universe. To subdue them Nrusimha created
thirty-two mothers more powerful than the
earlier one. The earlier mothers out of fear took
refuge in Nrusimha who asked all the created
mothers to look after the living beings of the
Universe as mothers. An eminent modern
scholar opined that yoginis were originally
women or priestesses, who being possessed
by the spirit of goddesses became yoginis.
The yoginis have been classified in
different texts according to their functions,
names and rituals attached to them. The Yoginis
are sixty-four in number and are classified as
Sahaja, Kulaja and Antyeja. Another text
divides yoginis into Ksetraja, Pithaja, Yogaja
and Mantraja based on different principles. The
first two groups of the second classification
have association with the sacred pithas; the
yogojas are propitiated with yogic practices
and the mantrajas with Mantras. The mother
goddesses such as Brahmani, Maheswari,
9
Orissa Review * October - 2004
sixty-four yoginis are associated with
sixty-four kalas, sixty-four Ratibandhas, sixtyfour
Bhairava, sixty-four Nayika and sixty-four
emotion of human-being. Name of these sixtyfour
yoginis - 1. Chhaya, 2. Maya, 3. Narayani,
4. Brahmayani, 5. Bhairavi, 6. Maheswari,
7. Rudrayani, 8. Baseli,9. Tripura,
10. Ugratara, 11. Charchika, 12. Tarini,
13. Ambika Kumari, 14. Bhagabati, 15. Nila,
16. Kamala, 17. Santi, 18. Kanti, 19. Ghatabari,
20. Chamunda, 21. Chandrakanti, 22. Madhavi,
23. Kachikeswari, 24. Anala, 25. Rupa,
26. Barahi, 27. Nagari, 28. Khechari,
29. Bhuchari, 30. Betali, 31. Kalinjari,
32. Sankha, 33. Rudrakali, 34. Kalavati,
35. Kankali, 36. Bukuchai, 37. Bali, 38. Dohini,
39. Dwarini, 40. Sohini, 41. Sankata Tarini,
42. Kotalai, 43. Anuchhaya, 44. Kechamukhi
Samuha, 45. Ullaka, 46. Samasila, 47. Mudha,
48 Dakhinai, 49. Gopali, 50. Mohini,
51. Kamasena, 52. Kapali, 53. Uttarayani,
54. Trailokya Byapini, 55. Trilochana,
56. Nimai, 57. Dakeswari, 58. Kamala,
59. Ramayani, 60. Anadi Shakti,
61. Balakshatrayani, 62. Brahmani, 63. Dharani
and sixty-four. Matangi. All these names of
sixty-four yoginis are described in Chandi
Purana of Sarala Das.
Twelve lists of sixty-four yoginis
collected so far do not confirm to each other.
The extant yogini temples do not show
uniformity in iconography. In Hirapur Yogini
temple the images are all standing associated
their Vahana, whereas at Ranipur Jharial they
are in dancing poses. The images of Bheraghat
temple of Madhya Pradesh are seated in
Lalitasana.
Dr. Janmejaya Choudhury is the Lecturer in History at
Sri Jagannath College, Kaipadar in District of Khurda.
Vaisnavi, Indrani etc. are classified as yoginis.
The yogini kaula of Matsyendranath also refers
to the worship of mystic circles made up of 4,
8, 12, 64 and more angles of the centre of which
there is Siva, Omnipresent, immovable and
undualified. The sixty-four yoginis are most
probably so many angles representing the equal
number of manifestations of the Shakti
embracing Siva. The circle thus forms a 'Lotus'
reminding us of the famous Tantric Sricakra.
This theory of Matsyendra holds good when
we analyse the extant yogini temples. The
number of yogini is really perplexing. Various
sources have furnished different numbers of
yoginis, but ultimately the number sixty-four
appears to have been accepted by all the
authorities. Of these sixty-four yoginies, the
principal seven or eight are known as mother
goddesses such as Brahmani, Maheswari,
Vaisnavi, Kaumari, Varabi, Indrani and
Chamunda, who according to the Puranic
stories were created to drink blood of the
demons. It is probable that these eight principal
mother goddesses who are evidently the yoginis
were multified into sixty-four. That the cult of
sixty-four yoginis was widely prevalent is
evident from several lists of sixty-four yoginis
recorded in different texts. The Kalika purana,
Skanda purana, Brihadnandikeswara Purana,
cansatha yogini namavali, chandi purana of
Sarala Das, Durgapuja, Brihndla Tantra, Bata
Avakasa of Balaram Das and other texts
containlist of sixty-four yoginis. Besides, the
inscribed images in the sixty-four yogini temple
of Bheraghal of M.P. furish seventy-fine
images. Another list enumerates as many as
sixty-nine yoginis in eight categories. Another
text states sixty-nine yoginis in eight categories,
such as Gupta Yoginis, Guptatara Yogini,
Sampradaya Yogini, Kulatirna Yogini, Nigarva
Yogini, Rahasya Yogini, Atirahasya Yogini.
10
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Sambalpur, besides being the seat of Buddhism
and Hinduism, is also home to other religions
and communities such as Muslims, Christians
and innumerable indigenous tribal
communities. With this multiracial,
multi-religious, multicultural
and multi-lingual
composition, Sambalpur has
always chosen the path of
social accomodation and social
integration. Thus, people of
diverse religious faiths have
been residing together in
harmony in Sambalpur.
Therefore, it may be rightly
called the most pluralistic
society. The present paper is an
attempt to understand how the
indigenous communities and
their religious traditions have
played a significant role in the
process of state formation in the
erstwhile Sambalpur Rajya
during medieval period.
In Sambalpur, the ruling classes were
aware of the fact that communalism would
weaken the state and would cause disharmony
in social life and divert the attention of people
from formation of a separate Sambalpur Rajya.
So, attempts were made to integrate the
indigenous communities into one fold under the
umbrella of "Hindusim". Their deities were
accepted and exalted by the ruling classes of
Sambalpur in order to appease the local
subjects to consolidate their power over the
natives and to exercise their authority over this
area. Understandably, in the
process of the building of an
unified Sambalpur Rajya
indigenous communities with
their religious traditions were
successfully absorbed in the
mainstream of the Great Hindu
Tradition through its branches
like Saivism, Vaishnavism and
Saktism. The area of our study
i.e. Sambalpur is the
headquarters town of modern
Sambalpur district. It is
situated on the left bank of the
river Mahanadi.
From ancient times,
Sambalpur has been known as
the land of Tantrik Buddhism.
It is an ancient town, which has the reputation
of a Tantra Pitha. Significantly, when
Buddhism as a religio-cultural force began to
decline in many parts of India, Sambalpur
played the most important role for the
continuation of Buddhism in its new form i.e.
Tantrik Buddhism. The existence of Sambalpur
may be dated back at least to the early Christian
era. The Greek geographer Ptolemy (middle
of the second century A.D.) in his book
Samalei to Sambaleswari - Ashapuri to Samalei
(The Hindu Mode of Absorption of a Tribal Deity During Medieval Period in Sambalpur)
Dr. Chitrasen Pasayat
11
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Geographike refers to a town named
Sambalaka situated on the bank of the river
Manada. Ancient Sambalaka and Manada are
identified with modern Sambalpur and the river
Mahanadi respectively (Panda, 1996:34). The
suffix 'pur' has been later added by sanskritising
the original name Sambal when the territory
has come under the Chauhan rule (Senapati and
Mahanti, 1971 : 2-3). Similarly, the Samlei
Pitha may be said to be much older and the
deity may have been worshipped by the
aborigines since time immemorial.
Sambalpur is intimately associated with
the spread of Tantrik Buddhism in India and
abroad. It is considered to be the land where
the Sambara Tantra was propounded by a
famous Siddha called Pitopada who is also
regarded to have attained the Siddhi of
invisibility at Sambala (Senapati and Mahanti,
1971:446). Sometimes in the eighth century
A.D., Indrabhuti was the king of Sambalaka /
Sambalpur and was believed to have
patronised Tantrik Buddhism . He was the
author of the text Jnyanasiddhi. His sister
Laksminkara is also reported to be a Tantrik
Buddhist perfectionist. She is regarded as one
of the 84 Siddhagurus in Tantrik Buddhism and
as the propounder of a religious faith called
Sahajayana, thus making a great reputation for
herself. It suggests that by the time of medieval
period, the land of Sambala/Sambalaka/
Sambalpur was one of the important seats of
Tantrik Buddhism.
There is no denying the fact that the
Vajrayana of Indrabhuti and Sahajayana of
Laksminkara flourished in Sambalpur area
during the eighth century A.D. At that time,
Sambalpur might have developed a high
standard of Tantrik culture. Most probably,
Samalei Pitha was an integral part of that great
cultural tradition. In the Garbhagriha (inner
sanctum) of this temple, the fierce and typical
shapeless rock made to appear like the face of
Samalei Devi with two gold leaves in the forms
of eyes and in the middle a projection
resembling the mouth of a cow suggests some
influence of Tantra. In this context, learned
scholar Sasanka Sekhar Panda (1996:37)
identifies some significant points that in front
of the Garbhagriha of Samalei gudi (temple),
there is a pillared hall wherein a pair of human
foot-prints with two eight-petalled lotus-rosette
motifs on both sides are carved on a stonepanel.
This pair of foot-prints is worshipped
as Sitalamata. Such foot-prints are found to be
carved on stone-slabs at Ghudar and Ranipur
Jharial in the district of Balangir and
Narsinghanath in the district of Bargarh. It is
widely believed that worship of foot-prints of
Siddhacharyas was very common to the Tantrik
school. In other words, Sambalpur had made
Tantrik Buddhism a potent spiritual and cultural
force in the Indian sub-continent. In view of
this, Sambalpur might be considered to be one
of the important urban centres with international
reputation in between the second and eighth
century A.D. Apparently Tantrik Buddhism
continued to prevail in Sambalpur till about
13th century A.D. long after Buddhism had
vanished from most parts of India.
Reportedly, Laksminkara had married
Sevola, the son of the king Jalendra of Lanka/
Lankapuri. But, Laksminkara preferred the
career of a Tantrik Buddhist perfectionist and
practised Tantrik Sadhana in Lankapuri which
was regarded as Mahayogapitha or a great
centre of Tantrik Buddhist Yoga. Continuous
meditation and Tantrik Sadhana for seven years
in the cemetary of Lankapuri Mahayogapitha
made her properly enlightened and she
distinguished herself among the people of India
and abroad as Bhagavati Laksminkara or
goddess Laksminkara because of her Uttama
siddhi or excellent perfection. Lanka /
Lankapuri is identified with modern Sonepur/
12
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Suvarnapur (Mishra, 2003 : 87-88).
Lankeswari, therefore, may be identified with
Laksminkara, as the former nomenclature seems
to be a corruption of latter. Legend also
ascribes Goddess Samalei as Lankeswari. In
view of this, Goddess Laksminkara may
reasonably be identified with Laksminkara i.e.
Samalei / Samaleswari who has been
worshipped by the local people in Sambalpur.
Balaram Dev became the first Chauhan
Raja of Sambalpur Rajya some time in the
middle of the 16th century A.D. According to
the prevailing tradition, he discovered the
image of Samalei beneath a Semel (silk-cotton)
tree. The botanical name of this tree is Bomax
Malabaricum. Because of phonetic similarity
between Semel and Samalei some scholars
give credence to this tale that the deity
worshipped beneath a Semel tree has come to
be known as Samalei. Oral tradition relates
that Raja Balaram Dev was given a grant of
this area by his elder brother Raja Narasimha
Dev of Patnagarh. Balaram Dev established
himself first at Bargarh on the bank of the river
Jira. Therefrom, he is said to have shifted his
capital to Chaunrpur, on the right bank of the
river Mahanadi. Most probably, during this
period when Balaram Dev carved out a new
Rajya out of the territory of his elder brother
he named it Huma Desh. The learned scholar
Dr. N.K. Sahu has ascribed the period of
foundation of Sambalpur Rajya to the year
1570 A.D. (Panda, 1996:35).
As per the legend, the village Chaunrpur
is said to be the seat of Balaram Dev before
his coming to Sambalpur. One day while
hunting, Balaram Dev crossed the river
Mahanadi. When he reached the left bank a
beautiful hare appeared before him. Balaram
Dev set his hounds at the innocent creature.
But, the result was contrary to his expectation.
After some time the Raja found his hounds
repulsed by the hare. Struck by this
extraordinary exhibition of courage by the most
timid of animals, the Raja thought that there
might be some supernatural virtue in the land.
That night Goddess Samalei appeared in his
dream and said, "Why do you appear so sad ?
Don't think that there appears to have been a
mistake. I am Lankeswari here. Worship me.
Your expectations and hopes will be fulfilled."
Next day, Balaram Dev discovered the deity
in the form of a stone. Thence the Raja decided
to build his gad/garh (fort) there. Having built
a gad he installed in it the deity Samalei. The
place where her image was set up was a kud
(island) on which stood a Semel tree and hence
was called Semel kud while the deity was
named Samalei. Samalei has been Sanskritised
to Samaleswari i.e. "Iswari of Sambala" in the
reigns of Chauhans. Thus, Sambalpur is known
as the land of Samalei. In other words, she is
the reigning deity of Sambalpur (Senapati and
Mahanti, 1971 : 2-3).
Be that as it may, identical stories prevail
about the origins of other places of Orissa like
Cuttack, Talcher and Baripada. Identical story
is also associated with the discovery of deities
like Banibakreswari of Kuapada village under
Delanga block in Puri district and Barala devi
of Balasakumpa village in Phulbani district.
This is why it is difficult to locate the exact
time and place of the origin of this myth
(Pasayat, 2003 : 10-12). But, this story attests
the fact that the aboriginal religious shrines like
Samalei has received royal patronage. Raja
Balaram Dev enshrined the deity inside his
gad. During his reign, Puja services were
provided from the royal treasury. In other
words, state funding of the Puja services has
been introduced since then. Subsequently, the
present temple was built in the reign of Raja
Chhatra Sai (Senapati and Mahanti, 1971 :
548). Thus, it may be suggested here that
Samalei pitha was already existing when
13
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Balaram Dev arrived there. Perhaps, the temple
was in a dilapidated condition. Balaram Dev
extended royal patronage and rebuilt or
renovated the temple. Subsequently, Raja
Chhatra Sai had also most probably rebuilt or
renovated the temple.
There is no denying the fact that Raja
Balaram Dev adopted this Shakti Pitha and
extended royal patronage. But, the most
significant development in the period of Raja
Chhatra Sai was donation of forty villages for
the regular worship of Samalei devi. Names
of some villages are collected from the local
people. These are Jayaghanta, Kalamati,
Ambasada Katapali, Nunia Jampali, Karpula
Senapati, Chaunrpur etc. Thus, Chhatra Sai
made a permanent arrangement for the
maintenance of the Samalei gudi (temple). It
means that recognised steps have been taken
by the Chauhan rulers for the state-funding of
the Puja services in Samalei gudi and she has
been raised to the status of Rastra Devi and
called Samaleswari i.e. 'Iswari' or reigning
deity of Sambala or Sambalpur. However, the
landed property assigned for the performance
of the daily and special Pujas of Samalei Devi
have been converted into personal property by
the priests. This has been possible most
probably during the British rule, either by
hiding or destroying the copper plate grants.
What these priests have done was contrary to
the age-old prevailing tradition of this Shakti
Pitha. Any how, the priests are now managing
the Puja services of Samalei gudi. Reportedly,
the Samalei gudi has no property at present
(Senapati and Mahanti, 1971 : 548).
It may be said with precision that, in the
15th and 16th century A.D. after the
disintegration of Ganga empire of Orissa, a
strong pull towards political fragmentation as
well as decentralisation of power was taken
place partly due to the partition of ruling
families and partly due to land grants of
villages by the rulers to indigenous tribal chiefs
who ended up as independent potentates. In the
frontier zone of uncertain control like Daksina
Kosala (roughly modern west Orissa) the
indigenous tribal chiefs and chiefs of obscure
origins took advantage of weak central
authority, assumed power and formed several
small Rajyas (Deo, 2003 : 96). Formation of a
separate Bargarh and subsequently Huma Desh
and finally Sambalpur Rajya by Balaram Dev
in the 16th century A.D. was the result of the
partition of the ruling family of Patnagarh. In
all probability this was a forested area and
inhabited by aboriginal people when Balaram
Dev first arrived here. He was a reputed
warrior. Owing to military necessity, the
administration of this tribal dominated, hilly
and forested part was entrusted to him by his
elder brother Narasimha Dev, the then Chauhan
Raja of Patnagarh. Balaram Dev successfully
consolidated the Chauhan rule in this part of
the Rajya and carved out a new Rajya out of
the territory of his elder brother. Subsequently,
his successors extended and strengthened the
Chauhan rule in Sambalpur Rajya.
In order to sustain a separate and
independent Sambalpur Rajya, most probably
Balaram Dev and his successors had to depend
upon the Bhogas and Bhagas. They had to
persuade the local tribal people to become
settled agriculturists so that production would
increase, because a tribal economy based on
shifting cultivation cannot sustain a Rajya as
analysed elsewhere by the learned scholar Dr.
F. Deo (2003:96). To legitimise their status as
Rajas and to their share of the produce
(Bhaga), the Chauhan rulers granted lands to
Brahmins and temples which contributed to
changing the agrarian situation, formation of
hierarchical social order and Brahminisation
or Hinduisation of the society. Therefore, it may
be suggested here that Samalei Pitha was
14
Orissa Review * October - 2004
already existing when Balaram Dev arrived
here. Perhaps, the temple was in a dilapidated
condition. He extended royal patronage and
rebuilt or renovated the temple. Later on Raja
Chhatra Sai also most probably rebuilt or
renovated it. Thus, the temple of Samalei/
Sambaleswari became an important agent of
Hinduisation in Sambalpur.
There is a tale which reveals that during
the demolition of Hindu gods and goddesses
by Kalapahada, the priests of Sri Jagannath
Temple of Puri fled with the images of the
deities. They buried the images on the bank of
Mahanadi in Sonepur/Suvarnapur which is
situated to the south of Sambalpur. Kalapahada
and his army followed the priests and arrived
at Sambalpur where Samalei Devi prevented
them from proceeding further. She assumed the
form of a milk-maid and appeared before them.
She sold milk and curd to the soldiers who
were very thirsty. Immediately, the soldiers
consumed the milk and curd which spread
desolation among them. At this hour, the army
of Raja Balabhadra Dev of Sambalpur drove
back Kalapahada successfully. It would not be
out of place to mention here that identical
stories prevail in other religious shrines of
Orissa namely Chalhakhai Devi at Kulada and
Dahikhai-Chamunda Devi at Rambha, both in
Ganjam district. Also, this tale is associated
with Danteswari Devi at Bastar in the
neighbouring state of Chhattisgarh (Pasayat,
2003:20). It may be suggested here that the
origin of this story is imagination. That is why
it is difficult to identify the place where from
and the time when this tale has first been
conceived and later adopted in other religious
shrines. However, we cannot ignore the fact
that this tale has identified the supernatural
power and deeds of Samalei Devi. It has
established socio-cultural relationships
between the aborigines and the caste-Hindus.
By assimilating such stories into Samalei cult,
the aboriginal people identify themselves as
part of the larger Hindu religious culture, thus
contributing to Hindu cultural unity at a larger
level which has helped in the state formation
in Sambalpur.
Samalei at Sambalpur is a shapeless rock
made to appear like a face. It may be said to
be a big piece of head-like stone structure.
According to the oral tradition, Daksha
arranged a Yajnya. He invited all the deities
and relatives to attend the function. But, he did
not invite his own daughter Sati and son-inlaw
Lord Siva, because Sati married Siva
against the wish of Daksha. Yet, Sati went to
attend the ritual ceremony where she was
received with disgrace. As a consequence, Sati
protested and accused her father for his neglect
and disregard shown to her husband. Daksha
broke into anger and cursed Lord Siva by
calling him a beggar, ashman, Yogi, king of
goblins etc. Sati could not tolerate such insult
and jumped into the Yajnya kunda. Lord Siva
became furious and started his Tandava Nritya
bearing the corpse of Sati on his back. It was
terrible and the destruction of the entire
universe was imminent. Lord Vishnu came out
to save the mankind. He instructed his
Sudarsana Chakra to cut the dead body of Sati
into pieces. After the weight was gone and Lord
Siva became conscious he was consoled by
Lord Vishnu. Thereafter, Lord Siva retired
alone to his abode Kailash. The body of Sati
was hewn into a number of pieces and
wherever a fragment touched the earth a Sakti
Pitha (shrine of Mother Goddess) sprang up.
It is believed to be the head of Sati which is
enshrined and worshipped in the Samalei gudi.
Though mythologically, the origin of the
Sakti Pitha at Sambalpur is connected with
the most famous Daksha Yajnya story, originally
it is not reported or recorded in any of the epic
tradition of the Hindu religion. There is no
15
Orissa Review * October - 2004
denying the fact that the image of Samalei Devi
is a large block of stone. There is also a
projection with a narrow groove in the middle
of the stone image of the deity. This projection
is believed to be the mouth of the deity. On
both sides of the projection are depressions
covered with beaten gold leaves which
represent the eyes of the deity. Moreover, the
image of Samalei Devi does not resemble any
other Sakta goddess found in Orissa. There is
a Parsva Devata of Samalei called Pitabali
who is believed to be the deity of tribal people
namely Kandhas (Senapati and Mahanti,
1971:547). The above descriptions of Samalei
Devi suggest us to believe that she is a non-
Brahmin deity originally worshipped by the
aborigines of Sambalpur. Addition of Daksha
Yajnya story is very likely a later development
to add to Samalei some more dose of Sanskritic
elements. This may be suggested to be a fine
example of localisation or parochialisation of
famous Daksha Yajnya story to validate the
faith of the aborigines with the Hindu epic
traditions (Great Tradition) of India. By
identifying Sambalpur with the incarnation of
Shakti as Samaleswari and her mythical and
miraculous events, the local people identify
themselves as part of the larger Hindu culture
(Great Tradition), thus contributing to cultural
unity and consolidation of Chauhan rule in
Sambalpur.
There is another story which indicates
the horrifying nature of Samalei Devi. Once
the priest had fruits and flowers on a plate and
was offering prayers to the deity while his
small daughter was standing by his side. The
priest discovered suddenly that the deity had
disappeared. Looking up, the priest found the
deity devouring his girl child. Immediately the
priest threw the plate at the face of the deity.
As a result, the face of the deity turned to back
side. So, the deity is believed to be facing away
from the main entrance and that is why there is
no face on the front side. Interestingly, this tale
with little variation is found in some other
religious shrines namely Kanakadurga at
Piteipur village in Jagatsinghpur district,
Jaanlei Devi at Hinjilikatu in Ganjam district
and Kumari Devi at Bonai in Sundargarh
district. Also the tale is associated with
Chandrahasini Devi at Chandrapur in Bilaspur
district of the neighbouring state of Chhattisgarh
(Pasayat, 2003 :19). All the same, the meaning
of this tale is more important for our study.
This tale is meant not only to frighten children
away, but also suggests practice of severe form
of blood sacrifice and influence of Tantra on
this Pitha.
As per the oral tradition, once upon a
time human beings were sacrificed before
Samalei Devi. It is said that once a Siddha
Brahmin arrived at Sambalpur. Priests of
Samalei Devi caught him for sacrifice before
the deity. The Siddha Brahmin told the priests
to leave him alone before the deity inside the
Garbhagriha so that Samalei Devi could eat
him if she wanted. Accordingly, the Siddha
Brahmin was not beheaded; rather left alone
and alive before the deity. Then the priests
closed the doors of the Garbhagriha. The event
went contrary to the interests of the priests.
Next morning, the Siddha Brahmin came out
from Samalei gudi alive and unhurt. The story
spread quickly through out the Rajya that the
Siddha Brahmin had been pleased by Samalei
Devi and the deity had blessed him. Maharaja
Baliar Singh heard this miraculous incident and
ordered to stop the practice of human sacrifice
before Samalei Devi. Since then buffaloes were
sacrificed before the deity. Now-a-days, Bukas
(he-goat) and cocks are common sacrificial
objects during Durga Puja, Chaitra Purnima and
other occasions in this Shakti Pitha. This may
be understood to be the process of
legitimisation of Brahmin priests in the non16
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Brahminic Samalei gudi and minimisation of
severe practice of blood sacrifice in this Pitha.
According to the tradition, Samalei was
worshipped originally by the natives belonging
to Sahara and Jhara communities living on the
bank of the river Mahanadi. The main
occupation of these people was to collect
diamonds from the river bed of Mahanadi.
Once they found a big stone under the deep
water. They brought it out with the hope to
extract diamonds from it and placed it under a
Semel tree on the bank of the river. Later on
they realised it as a deity in the form of a stone.
Thence, they started worshipping her (Dash,
1962 : 227). Although, Balaram Dev adopted
the local deity, he did not exclude the
traditional servants of the deity from the temple
cult which was emerging as a testimony to
Sanskritisation or Hinduisation of Samalei
Devi. He appointed the Saharas, the traditional
worshippers of the deity as the priests and
Jharas as the servants and holders of canopy
of Samalei Devi (Sae Deo, 1985:7-8).
Saharas are generally considered to be
untouchables in the social hierarchy of this area.
In villages, Samalei as village deity is
worshipped by the Jhankars. Though the
Jhankars do not belong to any specific caste
or community, they are, in fact, non-Brahmin
priests who also worship other village deities
called Mauli, Budhima and Grampati. Earlier
Jhankars were granted rent-free lands for their
service in the villages. All these combinedly
indicate that Samalei has the character of a
non-Brahmin deity. Most probably, the rulers
intended to honour the sentiments and feelings
of the aborigines. In view of this, it may be
suggested here that Shaktism has taken all care
to adopt the features of the aboriginal or local
religious cult i.e. Samalei. In other words,
many local indigenous communities with
Samalei tradition of erstwhile Sambalpur
Rajya have been deeply attracted towards and
absorbed in the mainstream of the Indian
cultural tradition through Shaktism. The great
tradition of Shaktism coupled with Saivism has
formed has become a great force for the
integration of Indian civilization and has a great
influence on the regional religious culture of
Sambalpur i.e. Little Tradition.
A very important aspect of the
development of religious system in Sambalpur
region during the medieval period is the
introduction of Tantrik elements in worship.
As it has been discussed earlier, historical and
archaeological remains attest to the fact that
Sambalpur region has been a strong-hold of
Saivism and Shaktism coupled with Tantrism.
Furthermore, severe practice of blood sacrifice
at this Pitha, absence of caste distinction,
employment or engagement of tribal/non-
Brahmin priests, installation of the guardian
deity (Samalei) in the Garbhagriha i.e. centre
of worship, belief in the replica (Chalanti
Pratima) of the main deity, annual or
periodical journey (Jatra) of the Chalanti
Pratima, spirit possession or descending of
Samalei Devi through human beings etc. suggest
some connections with Tantra. As it is
discussed elsewhere, Sambalpur as well as
Samalei pitha has been identified with an
important seat of Tantrism where a very high
standard of Tantrik culture has been developed
during the Buddhist and pre-Chauhan period.
But, thereafter, particularly during Chauhan
period the unique blend of Saktism, Saivism,
Tantrism and Sanskritic/Brahminical culture
has rose to a new height in Sambalpur region.
Most probably, the Chauhan rulers have
brought their own faith with them. But, they
have not enjoined on common people of this
area to believe and follow their faith and
worship their deity; rather they have reckoned
their own faith with that of the locality. It was
17
Orissa Review * October - 2004
not what they practised and worshipped but
what they felt under what they believed that
was important. The Chauhan rulers have taken
all care to retain the primitive character of this
Pitha like aniconical image of the deity, non-
Brahmin priests of the deity, blood sacrifice
etc. By constructing or renovating the temple
they have introduced elaborate rituals in a
systematic manner. By giving rent-free land
grants to the temple they have ensured regular
Puja services for the deity. Also they created
myths wherever required to identify the deity
as a Hindu Goddess. In all probability, they
have carefully followed this principle under
political expediency with a view to please the
local subjects.
In this context, mention may be made of
Ashapuri Devi who is the tutelary goddess of
the Chauhan rulers all over the country. Ramai
Dev, the first Chauhan ruler of Patna Rajya has
identified her as Pataneswari in Patna/Patna
gad meaning 'Iswari' of Patna (Balangir-Patna).
Since then Pataneswari has been the tutelary
goddess of the Chauhan rulers of Patna gad or
Patana house. Similarly, Balaram Dev has
established Sambalpur Rajya. He has also
exalted the local deity Samalei as
Sambaleswari meaning 'Iswari' of Sambala/
Sambalpur and the king has accepted her as
his own tutelary goddess.This way the local
name of the deity i.e. Samalei has been
Hinduised to Samaleswari. According to this
name, she is the deity of all who reside in
Sambalpur. In other words, the deity represents
a larger society wherein people of various
ethnic backgrounds stay together. Thus, the
deity has become the source and symbol of
unity and integrity mainly between the
aboriginal people and caste-Hindus in
Sambalpur.
It may be understood that the Chauhan
rulers have made it their principle to esteem
and extol the deities of the aborigines or natives
whereever they have established their
kingdoms and expanded their territory.
Samalei, the deity of the autochthonous people
has been hijacked by the ruling classes and
used as tool to exercise their authority and
control over the latter. Not only Samalei of
Sambalpur but also Asta-Sambhus in different
parts of erstwhile Sambalpur Rajya namely
Bimaleswara at Huma, Kedarnath at
Ambabhona, Biswanath at Deogaon,
Balunkeswara at Gaiasama, Maneswara at
Maneswar, Swapneswara at Sorna,
Bisweswara at Saranda and Nilakantheswara
at Niljee were adopted and given royal
patronage in the reign of Chauhan rulers.
Temples were constructed and elaborate rituals
were introduced in these temples. Rent-free
lands and villages were granted and regular
Puja services of these deities were ensured.
This fundamental principle has made them very
popular among the local inhabitants and has
helped them to expand, consolidate and
strengthen the Chauhan rule in Sambalpur
region.
It may be noted here that Pataneswari
temples are found only at few places like
Patanagad, Balangir and Sambalpur, whereas
the number of Samalei gudi or Samaleswari
temples in Sambalpur is quite large. Besides
the Samalei gudi situated in Sambalpur,
Barpali and Suvarnapur, the deity occupies a
pivotal position in the religious life of the
common people of Sambalpur area. She is
being commonly worshipped under a tree in
the form of a stone in the vicinity of almost
each and every village of erstwhile Sambalpur
Rajya. This indicates the extent of reverence
shown to Samalei in Sambalpur area. In
villages, Samalei is worshipped by the
Jhankars who enjoy rent-free lands for his Puja
services. Moreover, many indigenous,
aboriginal, native, local, folk or tribal
communities with their religious traditions
18
Orissa Review * October - 2004
(Little Tradition) of Sambalpur region have
been successfully absorbed in the mainstream
of the Hindu Great Tradition through Saivism,
Shaktism, Vaishnavism and helped in the
process of state formation during medieval
period in erstwhile Sambalpur Rajya. Bose
(1941:188) has rightly pointed out, "Hinduism
has grown by the incorporation of many tribal
cults, until it has become a kind of federation
of religious beliefs and practices ... which goes
by the name of Hinduism."
In sum, it may be concluded that as most
of the rulers originated from one of the local
groups it was easy for them to raise their deity
to be the state deity. In the process it helped
them to legitimise and consolidate their
political power over the area. Deities became
the link between the ruler and the ruled. The
patronage of local deities and their elevation
helped the rulers spread the story that the local
deity had been pleased with the new ruler or
the deity had blessed the ruler or the ruler could
please the deity. They used the emotional and
religious attachment of the local communities
to the deities. This was to draw support for
themselves. This helped the rulers to legitimise
their position in the area and to enjoy the
support of the local people. This pattern
emerged both because the rulers needed the
support of the local communities who were in
a majority and also because of the fear of the
deity whose wrath might result from absence
of worship. The incorporation of local
communities into the wider social order and
their indoctrination proceeded in multifacated
manner through ceremonial and enactment of
hierarchical relations. So, multiple
simultaneous processes of Hinduisation,
Tribalisation and Localisation /
Parochialisation are found in the linking
between the Hindu Great Tradition and the
local Little Tradition of Sambalpur. These
processes of diffusion, acculturation and
assimilation were not one way flow from
Hindu Great Tradition to local Little Tradition
alone. In Sambalpur area, it was the
simultaneous process of acculturation and
deculturation. It proceeded through complex
processes of interaction which are confirmed
by myths, legends and historical evidences.
References :
1. Bose, N.K. (1941), "The Hindu Method of
Tribal Absorption, "Science and Culture, Vol.8,
pp.188-94.
2. Dash, S.P. (1962), Sambalpur Itihas (Oriya),
Sambalpur : Viswabharati Press.
3. Deo, F. (2003), "Chauhan Myth and Royal
Legitimisation in Kosala (Daksina)," Souvenir,
Lok Mahotsav, Sambalpur, pp.96-101.
4. Eschmann, A. (1986), "Hinduisation of Tribal
Deities in Orissa : The Shakta and Saiva
Typology," in A. Eschmann, H. Kulke and G.C.
Tripathy (eds.), (1986), The Cult of Jagannath
and the Regional Tradition of Orissa, New
Delhi : Manohar Publications, pp.79-98.
5. Mishra, R. (2003), "Scientific Theories in the
Creativities of the Samvalaka - Princess
Laksminkara," Souvenir, Lok Mahotsav,
Sambalpur, pp.87-90.
6. Panda, Sasanka Sekhar (1996), "Early Chauhan
Temples of Sambalpur Town," Orissa Review,
April, pp.34-38.
7. Pasayat, C. (1998), Tribe, Caste and
Folkculture, Jaipur : Rawat Publications.
8. Pasayat, C. (2003), Glimpses of Tribal and
Folkculture, New Delhi : Anmol Publications
Pvt. Ltd.
9. Sae Deo, L.R. (1985), "Samaleswari Mandira
Pratisthara Kimbadanti O Samkshipta Itihas
(Oriya)," Basant Milan Smaranika,
Hirakhanda, Sambalpur, pp.7-8.
10. Senapati, N. and B. Mahanti (eds.), (1971),
Orissa District Gazetteers, Sambalpur,
Cuttack : Orissa Government Press.
Dr. Chitrasen Pasayat is the Asst. Administrator in the
Sri Jagannath Temple Office at Puri.
19
Orissa Review * October - 2004
The worship of Mother Goddess or Shakti, can
be traced back to the Pre-Vedic or Indus Valley
Civilisation. Devisukta of the Rig Veda is the
primary source of Shakti Cult. In the Rig. Veda
there is a description of a goddess named
'Aditi'. She is depicted not only as Mother
Goddess but also as an
emblem of the divine spirit.
But it is difficult to say
when this cult made its first
appearance in ancient
Orissa. However, from the
epigraphic and
iconographic stand-point, it
is obvious that the evolution
of Shakti Cult in Orissa is
not prior to the 4th century
A.D.
The earliest
epigraphic evidence
regarding the Shakti
worship in Orissa is found
in a Copper-Plate Grant of Tushtikara Deva,
who perhaps flourished about the 5th or 6th
Century A.D. and was a worshipper of goddess
Stambhesvari. There is a pillar of Stambhesvari
at Sonepur and a temple of the goddess at Aska
in Ganjam. We have reference to that deity in
the Grants of Sulki and Bhanja kings. We are
also inclined to take Stambhesvari as another
form of Khambesvari, the popular deity among
the aboriginal people of some areas of exfeudatary
States of Orissa. The primitive tribes
even today, set up a big piece of stone or a
piece of wood with eyes, mouth painted crudely
with indigenous colours,
usually under a tree in
some central place or
outside the village and
worship it as the
guardian-diety of the
village.
Jajpur, on the bank of
river Vaitarani, was an
old and prominent seat of
Shakti Cult and tantric
worship, and its history
goes back to the days of
the Mahabharata when it
was considered a sacred
place of pilgrimage. The
image of Viraja, now under worship in the
temple at Jajpur, is a two-handed
Mahisasuramardini, engaged in killing a
Buffalo-demon. As the image of
Mahisasuramardini depicted on the Gupta
temple of Bhumara is four-handed, it is
maintained that the present image of Viraja in
Shakti Cult in Orissa
Balabhadra Ghadai
20
Orissa Review * October - 2004
the temple of Jajpur belongs to the 5th Century
A.D.
It was during the early Bhaumakara rule
in Orissa, that the Durga image became eightarmed
(Asthabhuja) and during the later
Bhaumakara period, this image is found to be
ten-armed (Dasabhuja). The popularity of
Shakti worship at Jajpur is born out of the fact
that the Bhaumakara queen Tribhuban
Mahadevi compared hereself with Katyayini
(Durga or Viraja) at her accession.
During the Sailadbhaba and Bhaumakara
periods, Tantricism grew from 7th Century
A.D. The Tantriks worshipped the Mother
Goddess as the source of power or shakti and
the origin of the highest spiritual bliss. From
7th century onwards Tantricism continued to
dominate Buddhism, Saivism and Brahmanical
religions. The great Saiva centre of
Bhubaneswar has also a number of Sakta
temples built during the Bhauma period. The
most ancient Shakti shrine of Bhubaneswar is
the temple of Vaitala and its sculpture clearly
proves that the strange esoteric rites were being
performed in it. Four Shakta shrines sprang up
on the four sides of Vindu Saravara near the
Lingaraj temple and they are now known as
Vaitala, Mohini, Uttareswar temples. The name
of the Shakta shrine on the east of the tank,
which still exists, has been lost. These Shakta
shrines contain either the images of Chamunda
or of Mahisasuramardini. Of them, the Vaitala
is the most prominent and a study of its
sculpture and architecture indicates that the
strange esoteric rites including human sacrifice,
were being performed in it. The presiding deity
of Vaitala temple is goddess Chamunda
garlanded with skulls and she is of terrific form
and is known as Kapalini. This Kapalini was
the deity of the Kapalikas.
Besides the Vaitala temple,
Kichakeswari (Chamunda) is also the presiding
deity of the largest temple at Khiching in the
Mayurbhanj district which is the creation of
the Bhauma age.
The worship of Sapta Matruka (seven -
Mothers) was another form of Saktism during
the Bhaumakara period. The seven goddesses
are Varahi, Indrani, Vaishnavi, Kaumari,
Sivani, Brahmani and Chamunda. The deities
are of two or four-armed. The earliest
representation of such matrukas was found at
Parasurameswar, Vaitala and Mukteswar
temples at Bhubaneswar. The Sapta Matruka
images have also been found at Jajpur, Belhandi
in the Kalahandi district, Markendeswar tank
at Puri, Salanpur in Jagatsinghpur etc. These
Seven Mothers are accompanied by Ganesha
and Virabhadra. The econographic peculiarity
divides the Matrukas of Orissa into two broad
groups, earlier and later. The earlier Matrukas
seem to have been in prevalence in the
Sailadbhava and the Bhaumakara periods and
the later group with the babies as the distinctive
attributes, seem to have originated in the
Somavamsi period. Sapta Matrukas found in
the modern temple of Dasasvamedha Ghat on
the river Vaitarani at Jajpur, Markandeswar
tank and the image of Salanpur holding babies
in arms belong to the later group.
In the Prachi valley, there is a temple of
Varahi at Chaurasi near the village of Tulasipur.
The special feature of the temple is that its
Jagamohan resembles to that of Parsuramesvara
temple at Bhubaneswar whereas the main
temple is a replica of the Gouri Temple of
Bhubaneswar. The presiding deity Varahi is a
two-handed beautiful image with fish in one
hand and a skull in the other hand. This temple
can be definitely assigned to the Bhauma
21
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Culture Age. Another Varahi shrine is found at
Narendrapur near Gadi in the Balasore district.
The part of an ancient fort named Kichakagarh
at Khiching in Mayurbhanj district is known
as Varhi which is a corruption of Varahi. It is
believed that a shrine of
Varahi must have existed
here though it has not been
traced.
With the rise of
Tantric Buddhism and
Tantric Saivism during the
Bhaumakara period, the
Yogini worship became
popular in Orissa prior to
the 10th Century A.D. The
Kalika Purana mentions
'Odra' as one of the
important Brahmanical
tantric pithas of India. The
temple of Hirapur, which
stands not far from the south
bank of the river Bhargavi,
on which runs the wellknown
Jagannath road to
Puri was first discovered by Sri K.N.
Mohapatra in the year 1953. There is a similar
temple of Yogini at Ranipur Jharial in the
Titlagarh sub-division of Bolangir district. The
dimension of this pitha is bigger than that of
Hirapur.
During the Somavamsi rule, Shaktism
gained momentum in Orissa. But the Gangas
do not seem to have favoured and patronised
the worship of Shakti. Madalapanji states that
Chodaganga banished all goddesses from
Orissa. Sarala Das in the Madhyaparva of his
Mahabharata points to the fact that Chodaganga
was responsible for the removal of
Ramachandi from her original shrine at
Konarka to the sea-shore at Liakhia Muhana.
But the worship of Shakti did not disappear; it
took a new form. In this
period all male deities
were provided with
consorts or female
counterparts. The
temple of Parvati found
in the Lingaraj
compound was built in
the Ganga period. They
also built the temples of
Lakhmi and Vimala
inside the compound of
the Jagannath temple at
Puri.
Thus, evolution of
Shakti cult, down
through the centuries,
indicates that worship
of the Mother Goddess
in various forms
continue unperturbed. There are numerous
Shakti shrines in Orissa of which the shrines
of Viraja at Jajpur, Samaleswari at Sambalpur,
Bhagabati at Banpur, Mangala at Kakatpur,
Charchika at Banki, Sarala at Jhankada,
Kichakeswari at Khiching are most famous.
Balabhadra Ghadai is the Principal in M.K. College,
Khiching in the district of Mayurbhanj.
22
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Shaktism, the cult of Mother Goddess and
Shakti, the female divinity in Indian religion
symbolises form, energy or manifestation of
the human spirit in all its rich and exuberant
variety. Shakti, in scientific terms energy or
power, is the one without which no leaf can
stir in the world, no work can be done without
it.1 The Goddess has been worshipped in India
from prehistoric times, for strong evidence of
a cult of the mother has been unearthed at the
pre-vedic civilization of the Indus valley.
According to John Marshall2 Shakti Cult in
India was originated out of the Mother Goddess
and was closely associated with the cult of
Siva. Saivism and Shaktism were the official
religions of the Indus people who practised
various facets of Tantra. Siva and Shakti, the
dual deities were the principal deities of the
non-Aryans of the Indus Civilization. 3 The
Mother Goddess assimilation into the Hindu
Pantheon, however, took place long after Siva
and Visnu had been accepted in two distinct
phases; i.e. first the Indo-Aryan male gods were
given wives, and then, under the influence of
Tantric and Shakti movements, which had been
gaining momentum outside orthodox Hinduism
for many centuries, these shadowy female
figures emerged as supreme powers in their
own right and emerged into the great Goddess.4
Due to the wide prevalence of the
worship of Shakti or the female energy in India
from a very early period among almost all the
different ethnological elements comprising the
vast mass of Indian population, Goddess Durga
gradually became the supreme object of
adoration among the followers of Shaktism.5
Studies on various aspects of her character in
our mythology, religion, etc., grew in bulk and
her visual representation is well depicted in
our art and sculpture. It is interesting to note
that the very origin of her such incarnation (as
Durga) is mainly due to her celestial mount
(vehicle or vahana) lion. This lion is usually
assorted with her in our literature, art sculpture,
etc. But it is unfortunate that in our earlier works
the lion could not get his rightful place as he
deserved.
In the Hindu Pantheon all the deities are
associated in mythology and art with an animal
as its specific vahana, conceived both on the
figurative and the metaphysical plane. An
animal acting as vahana owns some magical
characteristics, in that each single example of
its species, either living or carved in sculptural
form, bears the implicit presence of the deity
associated with it. In the realm of Indian
sculpture art the vahana of a deity is generally
depicted below the latter's pedestal.6
According to H.Zimmer, the vahana meant as
an animate divine symbol supporting the
anthropomorphic figure of a god or goddess,
is an iconic representation of the power and
character of the concerned divinity, or an
incarnation of the same at an inferior stage and
under a different aspect. The depiction of the
vahana below the pedestal of the deity
The Lion : Mount of Goddess Durga
Pradeep Kumar Gan
23
Orissa Review * October - 2004
dissipates any possible ambiguousness as to
the latter's identity. Such treatment of the carved
images of divinities may have originated in
Mesopotamia in the course of the second
millennium B.C.; from thence, through the
medium of trade, it may have reached in Indian
sub-continent in the subsequent epochs.7
In consideration of the mount lion
associated with her in the myths or in sculptural
art, goddess Durga can be alternatively
conceived as Mahisamardini or as
Simhavahini. The lion came to prominence in
the Hindu pantheon with the origin of the
goddess Durga, which was narrated beautifully
in the Markandeya Purana.8 According to this
text, after being completely defeated by
Mahisasura, the gods, headed by Brahma,
approached Visnu and prayed for the
destruction of the demon. Thereupon all the
gods including Brahma, Visnu and Siva emitted
flames of anger which solidified into the
effulgent form of a goddess (Durga) with three
eyes and ten arms, each of which bore a weapon
given by the mighty gods. During this time the
Himavat offered a white lion to goddess Durga
as her vahana.
The golden skinned hairy lion is an
archetypal symbol for the golden rayed sun,
the lord of the day, whose appearance kills the
god of the night. Night, terminating the day in
the evening, is equally well represented by the
bull, whose horns connect it with the cresent
of the moon. It seems possible that the lion and
the bull also simultaneously personified other
antithetic cosmic forces, such as heat and cold,
fire and water, light and darkness, life and
death.9
The lion has always been important in
mythology, not only in India, but also in some
other countries. In Mesopotamia, Ishtar the
goddess of war, has always been associated
with the lion. The car of the Phyrgian goddess
Cybele, whose cult spread all over the Roman
empire is dragged by lions. Goddess Cybele
is popularly known as Mother of the mountain
in ancient Rome, like the same in the Indian
context, Durga and Parvati similarly associated
with lion and in the different manifestations,
they are also known as the goddess of the
Mountain.10 The Egyptian goddess Sekmet has
a leonine head, while the most archaic statues
of the Greek goddess Aphrodite depict the deity
as accompained by a lion. Sculptural examples
of a goddess associated with lion and paired
with a god associated with bull have been
recovered from Anotolia.1 1
Durga, the beautiful goddess of dawn,
life and victory, riding a lion, defeats the
buffalo-demon Mahisasura. In all her exploits
the lion is her mount, ferocious in look and
action. The lion also symbolised in all ancient
civilizations as the solar, igneous and luminous
principle of life and knowledge.12 The lion is
well represented in our religious digests and
others, adoration to him along with the goddess
is enjoyed with reference to this point the
Vaikrtika Rahasya appended to the Saptasasti
states that after worshipping the Goddess, the
devotee has to attend to the demon, whose body
lies in the left side of the Goddess with severed
head and then to the lion, the carrier of the
Goddess in her right side.1 3
Vamabhage grato devyas chinnasirsam mahasuram //29
Pujayen mahisam yena Praptam Sayujyam isaya /
daksine paratah simham samagram dharmam isvaram//30
As the symbol of the divine energies
embodid by the great Goddess, who is stated
to have been born out of the tejas of all the
gods in order to slaughter the buffalo-demon,
the lion express the heroism and prowess
necessary to defeat the asurik forces contrasting
with the Hindu dharama. Furthermore, the lion
can be even taken to represent the heroism and
24
Orissa Review * October - 2004
strength required from the sadhaka to enter the
dangerous path of Shakta-Tantric religious
practices, full of pitfalls for the uninitiated.1 4
In Indian context the lion is considered to be
an animal full of Shakti(power) with a devaic
and sattvik being of rhythmic movement. As
far as Shakta iconography is concerned, the lion
almost invariably accompanies the images of
Parvati, Mahisamardini and Simhavahini Durga
and is also represented in the most part of the
composite Saiva-Shakta images, such as
Ardhanarisvara and Umamahesvara, as the
symbolic animal lion associated with the
feminine side of the sculpture. Of course, from
an orthodox Brahmanical point of view, it was
only the lion, that acted in all ages as the
celestial vehicle of the Mahadevi.15 It
represents lordly power in general and lordly
power of wild beasts in particular. The image
of this animal, expressing a sense of rhythm, is
thought to be made up Prakriti maya-shakti.
Therefore, the lion partakas in the divine
essence of the great Goddess, the transforming
energy of the universe.1 6
In the Brahmanical pantheon the lion not
only has relation with the Goddess, but also
with Siva and Visnu. A lion sculpture placed
on its Vahana-Stambha faces the main portal
of most of the Shakta Shrines. A Shakta pitha
is always guarded by a image of lion facing its
main entrance, just like a Nandi image in a
Saivite Shrine and a Garuda image in a
Vaisnavite Shrine. The decorative sculptural
element of Orissan temples called gajasimha,
formed by an lion trampling on a crouching
elephant marked the victory of divine light over
asurik darkness.17 The Saiva tradition, as
attested in the Varaha Purana, knows a leonine
form of Siva which the god assumed in his
Virabhadra incarnation to kill the elephant
demon Nila.18 The lion's association with Visnu
appears more consistent due to his incarnation
as Narasimha.
Lion, the royal beast, the mount of
Goddess Durga, represents the best in animal
creation. It can also represent the greed for
food and hence the greed for other objects of
enjoyment, which invariably leads to lust.
Goddess Durga in Simhavahini form is a lesson
for the control of animal instincts in human
beings.
References :
1. Chitralekha Singh and Preem Nath, Durga New
Delhi, 1999, p.1.
2. Sir John Marshall, Mohenjodaro and the Indus
Valley Civilization, London, 1931, p.107.
3. L.P. Singh, Tantra : Its Mystic and Scientific
basis, Delhi, 1976, p.3.
4. W.D. O'Flaherty, Hindu Myths, Penguin Books,
1975, p.238.
5. Pradeep Ku. Gan, "Durga in Sacred Literature,"
Orissa Review, Vol.LX, No.2 & 3, Sept.-Oct.,
2003, Bhubaneswar, pp.4-6.
6. F. Brighenti, Shakti Cult in Orissa, New Delhi,
2001, p.231.
7. H. Zimmer, Miti esimboli dell' India, Milano,
1993, pp.70-1.
8. Markandeya Purana, Chapter-82, 1-17.
9. Chitralekha Singh and Preem Nath, op.cit., p.53.
10. F. Brighenti, op.cit., p.234.
11. N.N. Bhattacharya, History of Shakta Religion,
New Delhi, 1974, p.53.
12. F. Brighenti, op.cit., p.232.
13. U.N. Dhal, Mahisasura in Art and Thought,
Delhi, 1991, p.64.
14. A Boner and S.R. Sharma, eds., Silpa Prakasa;
Medieval Orissan Sanskrit Text on Temple
Architecture, Leiden, 1966, pp.XLIX-L.
15. F. Brighenti, op.cit., p.233.
16. Ibid., p.235.
17. Ibid., p.234.
18. T.A. Gopinatha Rao, Elements of Hindu
Iconography, Vol.I, Madras, 1914, pp.379-81.
P.K. Gan, a Scholar of History, Culture and
Archaeology is presently working at Fakir Mohan
University, Vyasa Vihar, Balasore.
25
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Shakta Pitha Bhattarika of Badamba in the
district of Cuttack is one of the notable holy
place of Orissa. This sacred pitha is associated
with Devi Bhattarika. The river Mahanadi the
longest river of Orissa flows in the side of the
temple of the Bhattarika. The river is deep
here. In the foot of
the Ratnagiri hill
temple of Bhattarika
is located. River
Mahanadi, Ratnagiri
hill, temple of
Bhattarika, and
famous places like
N a r a y a n a ,
N i l a m a d h a v a ,
V i n d h y a v a s i n i ,
Simhanath attract
thousands of
Pilgrims, devotees
and tourists.
According to a popular legend this pitha is
established by Parsuram and also he carved
the image of goddess in the tip of his arrow. In
this pitha Parsurama penanced to gain mercy
of the deity to kill Bhattas or Kshetriyas. The
Goddess became pleased with him and offered
him the desired boom. So the Pitha is
associated to the epic age. According to the
Ramayan, Ram, Lakshmana and Sita on their
way to Panchvati paid prayer to the Goddess
Bhattarika. The Mankadagadia hill on the other
side of Mahanadi where the foot mark of Ram,
Lakshmana and Sita are worshipped is also
quite significant. Another legend says that
Krishna and Satyabhama visited Bhattarika and
it was revealed to
Arjun during his
Agyantavasa. The
Demon Gosimha
k i d n a p p e d
Satyabhama in
disguise during that
period. Arjun fought
bravely and killed
Gosimha demon.
After that Krishna,
Satyabhama and
Arjun prayed
Goddess Bhattarika;
the presiding deity of
the Badamba royal family. The term Bhattarika
has different meaning. According to History
and legend of Badambagada, Gajapati of Orissa
ordered Hattakishor and Mallakishor the two
brothers to establish two villages named
Sankha and Mahuri. After that they became king
in that place. Tribal chief of that area opposed
these two brothers when they tried to construct
Fort. A terrible battle was fought and finally
Shakta Pitha Bhattarika
Pabitra Mohan Barik
26
Orissa Review * October - 2004
tribal chief and his wife died in the battle.
Before death the wife of the tribal chief advised
king Hattakishore to worship the deity
Bhattarika. Another name of the deity
Bhattarika is Bruhadamba. The king named his
state Bhuhadamba bearing the name of the
Goddess. But latter it is know as Badamba
Devi Bhattarika seated in Lalitasana holding
a lotus in one hand and the other hand in
Varadamudra. She is suryopasanatatpara. It
is seen that the sun God is worshiped here. In
the Jagamohan of the Bhattarika temple an
image of sun god is kept. Another meaning of
the Devi Bhattarika is "respectable lady." Devi
Bhattarika associated with eight small images,
five in padmasana and three in Lalitasana.
The associated images are Prabha, Maya, Jaya,
Sukshma, Visuddha, Suprabha and Abhaya.
According to Buddhist "Yogachara" system the
Devi is seated in the centre of Chakra
associated with eight deties. The priest
worships the goddess as Rajarajeswari,
Mahamaya, Tripura Sundari, Siddha
Bhattarika. Some research scholars opine that
the place was linked with Buddhism. At the
time of Bhaumakara rule the particular place
was associated with tantric Buddhism. The
Somavamsis who were dead enemies of
Buddhism might have converted the pitha into
the Hindu fold. The tiny Buddhist image is now
placed in the central niche. The present Tara
image appears to be a later insertion. The
worshippers of the goddess Bhattarika are non-
Brahmin, this brings about a folk character of
the deity. In the daily ritual of the deity the
cooked fish is offered. Devi Bhattarika is
considered as the deity of navigation and the
Fisherman community. The popular myths,
legends, archaeological evidence prove that
Bhattarika Pitha has been Shakta Pitha.
Pabitra Mohan Barik is the Lecturer in History in S.H.
Mahavidyalaya, Madanpur in the District of Khurda.
SHORT DURATION FRUIT CROPS : BANANA
The state has potentiality for both tall and dwarf banana varieties. The dwarf varieties
are more prominent in inland districts while the tall varieties are widely grown in
coastal tracts. Patakapura variety of banana belonging to Northman group is a traditional
variety of Puri district. The fruits are more delicious and highly qualitative with poor
keeping quality. This variety fetches very high prices in the market than the other types.
This variety is very specific to the particular agroclimate. Under tall varieties, Champa
and Chini Champa, Chakrakelli are improved types. Dwarf cavendish, Robusta, Srimanta
are dwarf types grown successfully in commercial scale in the state. There are several
hill bananas grown by tribals along the hill streams. The varieties are Muguni, Bukuphata,
Podasingha, Birupakhi etc. There are several varieties of culinary types of Banana like
Bantal, Gaja Bantal, Paunsia Bantal, Mendhi Bantal etc. Banana is considered as the
most auspicious plant and the fruits are used as offering to Hindu Deities. Banana is
produced in a total area of 24,700 ha. with approximate production of 2.80 lakh M.T.
27
Orissa Review * October - 2004
In the history of religion mother worship
occupied a prominent place. The antiquity of
mother worship in India dates back to
Harappan civilization. The discovery of
several terracotta female divinities testifies this
fact. The Aryans also gave priority to the
worship of mother goddesses. Later on during
historical period Devi worship got wide
acclamation due to the patronage of liberal
kings. They used to build several temples for
worship of the supreme goddesses like Parvati
and Durga. In course of time many Sakta rituals
and festivals have been created for the spread
of Saktism. Later on many religious texts based
on Shakti or Devi were written during medieval
period. Till today Devi worship continues in
full swing during Dassehra Festival held in
the month of October.
Among the several manifestations of the
supreme goddesses, her ten terrifying forms are
popularly called Dasamahavidya. These ten
forms are very popular since medieval period
and also in modern age. The Dasamahavidya
are Kali, Tara, Sodasi, Bhubanesvari,
Bhairavi, Chhinnamasta, Matangi, Kamala,
Dhumavati and Vagalamukhi. Thus mentioned
in Chamunda Tantra.
Kali Tara Mahavidya Sodasi Bhubanesvari
Bhairavi Chhinamastacha Matangi Kamalatmika /
Dhumavati cha Vagala Mahavidyah Prakirtitah// 1
Among these goddesses Kali is the first
and most important Mahavidya. Literally Kali
means "Dark-complexioned One". According
to Mahabhagavata Purana, Kali as a
Mahavidya originated from the fury of Devi
Sati to terrify Lord Siva.2 According to
Saktisangama Tantra,3 the Mahavidyas are
linked with ten Bhairavas. In this way Kali is
linked with 'Mahakala Bhairava'. Kali is also
known as Ratri Devi or Kalaratri.
Legend has it, that after her fight with
Mahisasura, Devi Durga became extremely
angry and took the ferocious dark
complexioned form, assumed short height and
began to walk on the ground. This form of Devi
came to be known as Kali. With lolling out
tongue, she started dancing blindly. The gods
and people in extreme fear appealed Siva for
help. Lord Siva realising the gravity of the
situation lay himself down on the way on
which the ferocious naked Kali was coming.
In her blind fury the Devi could not see him
and stepped on his chest. On the very moment
Siva's linga became erect and entered Kali's
body. At that time Kali recognised her husband
Lord Siva and pulled out her tongue in shame.
This description of Kali engaged in reverse
copulation with Lord Siva became very
popular in texts and iconography. According
to these texts her Dhyanas have been created.
The above mentioned description confirms the
iconography of Daksina Kali which is very
popular.
Goddess Kali in Orissan Art : With Special
Reference to Shyamakali at Puri
Santosh Kumar Rath
28
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Antiquity of Goddess Kali
Kali is regarded as one of the famous
deities in India. The earliest reference of Kali
can be found in the Mundak Upanishad.4
"Kali karalika manojabhaca sulohitaya ca
sudhumra varna sphulingini visvarupa ca
Devi lolayamanaiti saptajihva".
The Vedic literature associates Kali with
another ferocious goddess Nirtti as both of
them are dark complexioned. But during post-
Vedic period Nirtti lost her popularity and Kali
rose to prominence.5 According to scholars
Kali is the later form of Vedic goddess Nirtti.
The great epic Mahabharata also depicts about
Kali. Goddess Chamunda is referred as Kali
in the famous Durgasaptasati.6 It is to note that
earlier in Hinduism Kali was not regarded as
an important deity, but later on she is
considered as a form of Durga. In Agni Purana
and Garuda Purana, Kali is described as the
furious aspect of Durga and worshipped for
wining wars. It is also described that she
resides in the cremation ground wearing a
garland to skulls. Jadabharata worshipped Kali
as the tutelary deity of the bandits. The famous
text Silapadhikaranam of South India has
described her as the goddess of death
worshipped by the bandits.7 The Kinasariya
Stone Inscription of Cacca dated 999 A.D.
referred about Kali in her terrific form.8 In the
Oriya Ramayana written by Balaram Das in
the 15th c. A.D. vivid description about Kali
occurs.9 In Shyamasaparyavidhi written by
Kasinath in the year 1699 A.D., the first
reference of Kali worship occurred.1 0
Kali worship is prevalent in whole India
but it is very popular in eastern part (mostly in
Bengal and coastal Orissa), next to the worship
of Durga. She is worshipped both at home in
her benevolent aspect and in shrines with
tantric rituals. Besides daily worship at shrines
Goddess Kali is specially worshipped on the
day of 'Dipavali'. Her Vija-mantra is krim. It
is to be noted that animal sacrifice is a special
feature during the worship of Kali. The present
form of Kali worship is mainly based upon
three texts namely Kali Tantra, Tantrasara and
Shyamarahasya.
Various Forms of Kali
Devi Kali's position was raised to a
greater height by seveal Tantra Sastras.
According to Tulaja Tantra, Devi's well
known forms are eight,11 such as Daksina Kali,
Siddhi Kali, Guhya Kali, Sri Kali, Bhadra Kali,
Chamunda Kali, Smasana Kali and Mahakali.
The Mahakali Samhita give the names of nine
Kalis, such as - Daksina Kali, Bhadra Kali,
Smasana Kali, Kalakali, Guhya Kali,
Kamakali, Dhana Kali, Chandi Kali. The text
Tantraloka written by Abhinavagupta mentions
about thirteen forms12, such as : Kalisri Kali,
Samhara Kali, Sthiti Kali, Rakta Kali, Sukali,
Yama Kali, Mrityu Kali, Rudra or Bhadra Kali
(concert of Virabhadra), Paramaraka Kali,
Martanda Kali, Kalagni Rudra Kali, Mahakali,
and Mahabhairavaghorachanda Kali. The nine
forms of Kali are described in the Tantrasara
and Agamatatvavilasa13 of Raghunatha are as
follows : Daksina Kali, Maha Kali, Smasana
Kali, Guhya Kali, Bhadrakali, Chamunda Kali,
Siddha Kali, Hamsa Kali and Kamakala Kali.
Kali in Orissan Art
Though Kali is regarded as an important
deity in Sakta pantheon, but her images came
into existence only from 15th c. A.D. onwards
when Dasamahavidya worship gained
popularity. Kali images are less depicted in
temple walls in comparision to Mahisamardini
images. It is noteworthy that after the
completion of deplastering work of Jagannath
temple at Puri, an image of Kali came to
limelight.14 She serves as an Avarana-devata.
The image is carved on the western side on
the south-west corner in the upper Angasikhara
29
Orissa Review * October - 2004
of the Vimana. The image is partially eroded.
Here goddess Kali is seen standing in
Pratyalidha pose. She has dishevelled hair
and wears a garland of skull. She holds a
sword and an indistinct object (possibly
severed human head) in her right and left hands
respectively. Her image is flanked by
attendants. Perhaps this is the earliest Kali
image as an Avarana devata in Orissan temple.
Another image is located in the premises of
Dhavalesvara Siva temple near Cuttack. Here
Devi is seated in Lalita pose on a lotus under
which a corpse can be seen. In her principal
right hand she holds a rosary and holds a sword
by her uplifted back hand. Her right middle
arm as well as all the left arms are broken.
She wears a Kirita-mukuta and posseses a
third eye. In later examples when Kali images
are standardised, many new things are added.
A four-armed Kali image can be noticed in an
exterior niche of the Samalai temple at
Sonepur. Here Kali is depicted in dancing pose
on a corpse. She holds a Kartri and a sword
by her right hands while she holds a Kapala
by her uplifted back right hand.15 She has placed
her left hand in the neck of a standing figure,
who is Urdhvalinga. She possesses
dishevelled hair and wears Patra-kundala.
As a Parsva-devata, the images of Kali
appeared from 10th c.A.D. onwards. For
example the image of Kali as a Parsva-devata
appear on the ruined Bhimesvari temple at
Pedagadi, dated to late 10th c.A.D. In the
compound of Samalai temple at Sambalpur a
rare example of eight handed Kali can be
noticed. She is seen seated in
Vajraparyankasana on a lotus pedestal. Her
front right and left hands hold a mace and a
small pot while her other right hands are seen
holding a rosary, trident and a sword. The
remaining left hands hold a skull filled with
severed human head, an indistinct object and a
shield.16 She posseses dishevelled hair.
Another image is found at the base of the back
Rahapaga of the Baliharachandi temple near
Puri. Here Kali holds a serpent. She holds a
skull and a severed head by her left hands. She
stands in Alidha pose on the body of Lord Siva
who is Urdhvalinga. Images of Kali as Parsvadevata
are found in places like Palur in Ganjam
district, Bhagavati temple at Sonepur, in the
Jagamohana of Samalai temple at Sonepur,
Bausani temple in Phulbani district,
Daksinachandi temple at Kantilo etc.
Goddess Kali as a presiding deity can
be seen in several shrines of Orissa. In the
compound of Kosalesvara temple at
Badakanjia in Puri district a two-armed image
of Kali is worshipped as Rudrani. She is seen
seated in Lalita pose on a corpse. She holds a
sword over her head by her right hand while
her left hand holds a severed head.17 She wears
a garland of skull. On stylistic ground this
image belongs to 16th/17th c.A.D. Another
image is located near the Lankesvari temple at
Junagarh, who is known as Bhubanesvari. She
posseses four hands and is seen dancing on a
corpse. She holds a severed head and a sword
in her lower right and uplifted hands while her
other corresponding hands hold a noose and a
skull.18 One rare image of Devi is noticed in a
small temple at Laksminarayanpur in Cuttack
district. She posseses four-arms and stands on
Lord Siva's body. She displays Abhayamudra
and Varadamudra by her uplifted right and
lower hands, while she holds a sword (now
not in situ) and a severed head by her uplifted
left hand and lower hand respectively.19 In the
Mangala temple at Kakatpur, Kali is seen
standing in Alidha pose on the prostrate body
of Siva. Devi's right hands show Varada and
Abhaya murdras while her left hands displays
a sword and severed head. She also wears a
skull garland.20 The prostrate body of Siva is
depicted with Urdvalinga pose here. The above
description confirms the Dhyana of Daksina
Kali.
30
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Goddess Kali is also depicted in the
Pattachitras on cloth, interior wall paintings
and in ritual murals. Specially in Ganjam
district paintings of Kali can be seen in
Osakothi festival. It is interesting to note that
in a painting at Banesvaranasi, Kali stands on
the bank of a river in the mountain landscape.
She holds a scimistar and severed heads in her
left hands while she displays Varadamudra in
her right hand. Her uplifted right hand shows a
trident.21 She is yellow coloured. Another
interesting painting from the inner wall of the
Mandapa of Raghunath Jew temple at Cuttack
depicts Hanuman sacrificing Ahi Ravana, the
son of Ravana born in Patala, before goddess
Kali. Here she is depicted with her usual
attributes. Besides these other paintings of Kali
are noticed at Dadhivamana temple at Koilo
near Salepur (Cuttack district), Paschimesvara
temple at Talcher and in some temples at Puri.
Among the moving deities of Kali made
of metal, mention may be made of an image in
the Narayani temple at Paradipgarh. Another
example of this type of image can be noticed
in the Sambalpur University Museum. These
images are either the above mentioned Parsvadevatas
and presiding deities.
Goddess Shyamakali at Puri
Puri, the abode of Lord Jagannath, which
is celebrated as a Vaisnava centre is also
famous for its Sakta temples. Both inside and
outside the premises of famous Jagannath
temple there are several temples dedicated to
Sakta divinities such as Vimala, Laksmi,
Bhubanesvari, Harachandi, Daksina Kali,
Shyamakali, etc. which indicates the popularity
of Saktism at Puri. There is a temple dedicated
to goddess Kali at Bali Sahi. Perhaps it is the
earliest shrine where Kali (locally known as
Shyamakali) is the presiding deity. The area
where the temple is located is named as
"Shyamakali Lane" after the name of the
goddess. There is a good approach road to this
temple which connects the major road (locally
known as "Uansa danda") which runs from
Lion's gate to the sea.
From a text known as Kali Archana
Chandrika, it is known that during the reign of
Gajapati Kapilendra Dev, Shyamakali was
worshipped under a Vakula tree.22 With the
gradual march of time a secondary royal palace
was built near that place by the Gajapati kings,
of which little remains now. After Kapilendra
Dev, his son Purusottama Dev became king.
His Rajaguru Trilochana Dev and his wife
Ratnavati were great devotees of Shyamakali.
In the year 1599 A.D. Madhusingh, the brother
of Mughal General Mansingh built the temple
of Shyamakali.23 During the Muslim invasion
all the royal ceremonies were observed in the
temple of Shyamakali. Till 1599 A.D., all the
rituals were performed according to the text
Durgotsava Chandrika. But afterwards Kali
Archana Chandrika gained importance in the
rituals of Shyamakali. During the first quarter
of 18th c.A.D. the Rajaguru of king
Ramachandra Dev- II, Paramalaksmi Rajaguru
used to worship Shyamakali with tantric rituals.
In the beginning of 19th c.A.D. the famous
freedom fighter Jayi Rajaguru was also a great
devotee of Shyamakali. Goddess Shyamakali
is the tutelary deity of Gajapati kings. Till
today, according to the royal custom, the new
king after his coronation, first visits this temple
and worship Kali. Now-a-days little remains
of the said palace (earlier known as Puruna
Nahara/Bali Nahara) are left. But other temples
like Astasambhu and Radhakrishna alongwith
Shyamakali temple stands testimony to the
royal grandeur of the then age.
The iconography of Shyamakali confirms
the Dhyana of Daksina Kali prescribed in the
Sastras. Here Kali stands in Pratyalidha pose
on the chest of Lord Siva and posseses four
hands. She is engaged here in reverse
31
Orissa Review * October - 2004
cohabitation with Lord Siva. She holds a sword
and displays Abhaya-mudra in her upper left
and right hands respectively while her lower
left hand is holding a severed human head and
the lower right displays Varada-mudra. In this
context it is noteworthy that her benevolent
aspect is attested by holding of the sword in
her left hand. Because the sword in right hand
symbolises destruction. She posseses three eyes
and is surrounded by jackeles and vultures
carved on the side. The height of the image is
around four feet.24 From artistic point of view
this image belongs to 15th c.A.D.
There are other two images installed on
the left side of Shyamakali. These images are
four-handed and known as Vimala and
Sarbamangala. Same ascribe them as Chandika.
Like the famous Vimala image of Jagannath
temple, this icon of Vimala is seen standing
and holding a noose, a human figure and a vase.
Likewise the seated image of Mangala holds a
full moon, rosary and lotus. The significant
aspect of this image is that she holds a pestle
in her upper left hand.25
Thus it is inferred from the above
discussion that Kali has occupied a prominent
place in Sakta pantheon. But most of her
images came into existance from 15th century
onwards. Among the different forms of the
Devi, the Daksina Kali aspect is the most
popular both in texts and iconography. Most of
the Kali images including Shyamakali image
at Puri confirms the Dhyana of Daksina Kali.
Being the tutelary deity of the Gajapati kings
of Puri, Shyamakali ranked one among the
famous goddesses of Puri. From iconographic
point of view, her image is the only of its kind
in entire Orissa.
References :
1. Quoted by Puspendra Kumar, Sakti Cult in
Ancient India, p.155, Varanasi, 1974.
2. Das, H.C., Iconography of Sakta Divinities,
Vol.I, p.13, Delhi, 1997.
3. Bhattacharya, B, (Ed), Saktisangama Tantra,
Vol.III, Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1947.
4. Das, op.cit, p.16.
5. Ibid.
6. Bhattacharya, N.N., The History of Sakta
Religion, p.136, New Delhi, 1974.
7. Das, op.cit, p.18.
8. Epigraphia Indica, Vol.XII, p.59.
9. Das, op.cit, p.18.
10. Chakravarty, Chintaharana, The Tantras :
Studies on their Religion and Literature, p.92,
Calcutta, 1963.
11. Das, op cit, p.19.
12. Bhattacharya, op.cit., p.13.
13. Ibid.
14. Orissa Review, p.52, Bhubaneswar, July 1996.
15. Donaldson, T.E, Tantra and Sakta Art of
Orissa, Vol.II, p.546, New Delhi, 2002.
16. Donaldson, op.cit, p.543.
17. Donaldson, op.cit, p.539.
18. Ibid.
19. Donaldson, op.cit, p.540.
20. Ibid.
21. Donaldson, op. cit, p.545.
22. Rathasharma, Sadasiva, Smarta Pradhanyara
Kendra Shyamakali O Balinaara, (Oriya),
p.16 in the Souvenir Saktapramoda, Puri.
23. Rathsharma, op. cit, p.19.
24. Das, H.C., Sakta Pithas : A Study , p.117,
Bhubaneswar, 1999.
25. Bahinipati, Harihara, Maa Shyamakali (Oriya)
in Odisara Devadevi, Second Edition, Vol.I,
p.168, Cuttack, 1983.
Santosh Kumar Rath lives at "Smruti Sadan", Shyamakali
Lane, Bali Sahi, Puri-1.
32
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Striking images of a certain goddess having
variously referred to as 'the shy woman', 'the
shameless woman', 'the nude squatting
goddess', 'the mother goddess' or because her
historical name remains unknown, by numerous
names, among them Sakambari, Prithvi, Aditi,
Lajja Gauri, Renuka, Kottavi, Nagva
Kabamdha etc. Usually one finds them lying in
birth position, the spread-out legs drawn up
laterally and bent at the knees, the soles of the
feet turned upward, the arms bent upwards and
the hands, each holding a lotus bud.. touch upon
the petals of the large and open lotus blossom
that crowns the image, as its neck and head.
India presents the unusual phenomenon
of a traditional society that has produced
religious art continuously from at least the third
millenium B.C. to the present, within supposed
canonical prescriptions, but actually with a
great range of variation of forms. There are a
great variety of mythological hybrids that are
fixed features of the vocabulary of Indian art.
Among them are found primordial and powerful
symbols whose origins within the culture
cannot be traced, yet whose omniscience
within the art and culture indicate their
usefulness within it. Lajja Gauri, in artistic and
conceptual ancestry, descends from a group of
ancient popular symbols, among others, the
lotus and the purna kumbha, or brimming pot.
Conceptually Lajja Gauri has antecedents,
which may be, and in fact have been, traced
back to the Indus or the Chalcolithic culture of
India.
On the human level, the image of Lajja
Gauri acts as a temporal reference point, that
is, the female giving birth, an auspicious
occurrence: she is the embodiment of the idea
of fertility. On the divine level, Lajja Gauri is
the embodiment of the idea of fertility, of
generation, of life- force. On the cosmic level,
the image suggests universal laws and
processes of generation of life.
Lajja Gauri is almost always made to
lie on her back, supine. The toes of the
recumbent figure tensely splayed as if she is in
the act of giving birth, yet there is no indication
of pregnancy. Some say that the goddess is
simply indecent, shameless, and the pose
indicated sexual receptiveness although
certainly, the pose is sexually suggestive.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that, although
some do give birth miraculously, Indian
goddesses are never pregnant in imagery or
myth. The pose of Lajja Gauri is ambiguous,
but probably intentionally so since the pose of
sexual receptivity and the pose of giving birth
are the same. The human form and the
intercourse/ birth pose are used as a metaphor
for creation. In turn human parturition is used
in this image as a metaphor for divine creation.
We have seen women who do not get children
for along time worship Lajja Gauri. Butter and
red lead are applied on the vagina and breasts
and they pray for children.
Figures of the goddess Lajja Gauri range
in size from two inches to over life-size and
Lajja Gauri : The Nude Goddess or
Shameless Woman - Orissan Examples
Pradeep Mohanty
J.P. Singh Deo
33
Orissa Review * October - 2004
are made either through time and region from
the minimal and nearly aniconic to the fully
human. Truly these figures appear at the
beginning of Christian era. In most of the Lajja
Gauris, the vagina is prominently depicted as
if the figure is about to give birth. In many cases
these female figures are shown without the
head. We do not know the exact reason behind
this widespread motif. One of the suggestions
is that, because of her nudity, the goddess felt
ashamed, and hence the face was not shown.
Whatever it may be this picture became very
popular, because probably it satisfied the
human aspiration for children. Hence it is not
only represented and worshipped today in
many parts of India but it is found depicted in
churches and monuments as far as South East
Asia.
We have got two Lajja Gauri plaques
measuring 10 to 12 cm, carve don limestone
from the Nuapada district of Orissa. On
stylistic ground, it may be assigned to the 8th
century A.D. It is carved on squatting position
without stretched legs, the common posture of
female during child-birth. Pendant breast, navel
and vulva etc. are conspicuous features of its
blooming youth and also a pointer to the fertility
cult. The most outstanding features of the deities
are that they are headless. Instead of the head,
lotus leaves with stem are delineated on the
neck, as if it is efflowering from it. Some lotus
leaves along with elongated stems are also
discerned on the right side of the shoulder, as
if they emerge from the neck and bend to the
right. Thus, the upper part of the figurine
adorned with vegetation, unfolds a vegetative
and fecundity aspects of its nature.
Interestingly similar representation is
also found among the Bhiyans, a hunting
gathering and shifting cultivator community of
Orissa. Indeed, we do not know whether the
tribals are the imitators, or have continued the
tradition of their distant forefathers, the
chalcolithic people who are believed to have
been the early inhabitants of India. Another
example comes from the Bastar region of
Madhya Pradesh. Here outstretched leg posture
of a female is found carved in Gotul or youth
dormitory of Muria tribe. The outstretched leg
posture of semi squatting position of the motif,
thus conveys the sense of kama (sexuality). At
the same time, sexuality corrletes with fertility
ritual or vice versa. Belief in the relation of
sex and vegetative-fertility is fathomed by many
tribal communities of Eastern India.
We have a Harappan seal, in which a
woman is shown with her legs stretched wide
apart and a plant issuing from her vagina. This
indeed is a symbol of fertility. For centuries
this continued to hold the Indian mind, as
examples from historical period testify.
The village goddess of fertility,
embodies, very often the composite features
of sex and fertility. As such, numerous female
deities of fertility-nature either in
anthropomorphic shape or in aniconic features
are commonly found in peasant India. The fact
reveals thus the highest regard accorded to the
woman folk, who coalsed in her person
sexuality and fertility, like copulation,
conception and birth. The idea traversed to the
Art Tradition of India where erotic art found
fused with fertility. The artist who carved Lajja
Gauri images were aware of the more simply
erotic images, but they distinguished her image
through incorporation of rich symbolism.
Meanwhile, the image of Lajja Gauri still
remains enigmatic. It is obvious that there still
remain quite a few questions regarding the
identification, status, affiliation and
disappearance of the intriguing Lajja Gauri to
be answered.
Pradeep Mohanty is a Research Fellow in Deccan
College, Pune and J.P. Singh Deo lives at Khariar.
34
Orissa Review * October - 2004
A Peep into the Candi Text
Rajkishore Mishra
Saptasati Chandi
Sri Candi is not exclusively a single
independent treatise. It is the portion of
Markandeya Mahapurana. To be precise it
contains the narrations described in the 81st to
93rd chapters of the said text. In the
Markandeya Purana, this portion is otherwise
known as Devi Mahatmya or Saptasati as it
compriseS seven hundred mantras.
Narration of Prodigious Birds
Once sage Jaimini (the author of
Mimansasutras and the disciple of Vedavyasa)
approached Markandeya rsi to get some
intricate questions raised in the Mahabharat
clarified. Since Markandeya was otherwise
busy he advised Jaimini to approach the erudite
sons of Dronamuni (i.e. Pingaksa, Viradha,
Suputra and Sumukha) who were then
transformed to birds on account of paternal
curse and were perching in a cave-habitat on
the Vindhya mount. When approached, they
clarified all doubts of Jaimini. Being glad
Jaimini further asked the bird-shaped sons of
Dronamuni about the 14th manvantara. In reply
the birds reiterated what they had heard in the
past when sage Markandeya was enlightening
Kraustuki (or Bhaguri), the son of a brahmin.
Savarni and the 8th Manvantara
The sage Markandeya first told Kraustiki
about the seven manvantaras, i.e.
Svayambhuva, Svarocisa, Uttama, Tamasa,
Raivata, Caksusa and Vaivasvata. Being further
asked Markandeya enlightened Kraustiki about
the evolution of the eighth Manu Savarni.
Savarni was son to Savarna and Surya who
later became sovereign in the 8th manvantara
(a period spanning over 4320,000 solar years).
Earlier in the second manvantara (i.e. during
the regime of Svarocisa) Maharaja Suratha
(who was born in Caitra clan) was a great
devotee of Candi. By her grace he was blest to
be born a Manu in the eighth Savarnika
manvantara. This episode and the stories
relating to the slaying of Madhu-Kaitabha,
Mahisasura and Sumbha-Nisumbha form the
corpus of the Candi running over 13 chapters.
Medhas Narrates Before Suratha
Back in the hoary past, it was Medhas
muni who narrated the glories of the Devi
before the king Suratha who was in the company
of a merchant named Samadhi. Markandeya
knew this. So he narrated it before Kraustiki
(alias Bhaguri). The bird-shaped sons of
Dronamuni who were privileged to hear this
now narrated the same before the sage Jaimini.
35
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Devi Mahatmya in Other Texts
This Devi Mahatmya as described in the
Markandeya Purana also finds place in other
purana-s either in clipped or extended formats.
The episode of Maharaja Surath finds
mention in chapters 32, 34, 35 of the 5th canto
and in the 10th chapter of the 10th canto of
Devi Bhagavat. It is also narrated in 61-64
chapters (Prakrtikhanda) of Brahama
Vaivartta Purana (said to predate
Markandeya Purana).
The slaying of Madhu-Kaitabh finds
mention in 6th-9th chapters and 11th chapter
of the 10th canto of Devi Bhagavat. Besides,
it is also mentioned in the 72nd chapter of the
Uttara kanda of the Ramayana and in the 347th
chapter of the Santi Pava of the Mahabharat.
So also the mention of Mahisasura's
death is mentioned in the Devi Bhagavat (5/2-
20, 10/12), in Vamana Purana (ch. 17-30) and
in Skanda Purana (Ch.83, Prabhas Khanda,
ch.36 Arbuda Khanda, ch 67 Brahmakhanda
and ch.s 119-121, Nagara Khanda).
The death of Sumbha-Nisumbha is
reflected in Devi Bhagavat (5/21-31), Vamana
Purana (Ch 55 & 56) and in Skanda Purana
(Arbuda-24).
Saptasati with Technical Divisions
Sri Candi is otherwise known as
Saptasatistava which apparently means that it
comprises 700 verses (s'loka-s). But it is not
true. In fact it contains only 518 sloka-s which
is spread over 100 mantra-s. Tantracarya
Bhaskar Ray alias Bhasurananda Nath of
Tanjore in the 17th C. has made a clear-cut
division of Saptasati Candi as per the
following :
1. Slokatmaka(verse-oriented) Mantra - 537
2. Ardhaslokatmaka (half-verse) -do- - 38
3. Tripad (three-lined ones) -do- - 66
4. Uvaca (Thus said) -do- 57
5. Punarukta (Said again) -do- 2
700
Three Primal Manifestations of Candi
The Candi treatise is divided into three
segments. The first segment or Prathama
carita refers to the 1st chapter, the second
segment or Madhyama carita refers to the
whole of 2, 3 and 4 chapters whereas the third
segment or Uttama carita refers to the
narrations starting from the 5th to the conclusive
13th chapter. Three deities, i.e., Mahakali (or
Yoganidra who was instrumental in slaying the
demons Madhu and Kaitabha by Narayana),
Mahalaksmi (a unique deity who was recipient
of all valour and glamour of gods and who
crushed the fierce demon Mahisasura) and
Maha Sarasvati (who sprung from the body of
Gauri to kill Sumbha and Nisumbha) are verily
the primordial forms of Candi as described in
the above-mentioned segments.
Mahakali presents a fierceful dark figure
with ten faces, ten hands and twenty eyes. She
holds in her hands a sword, arrow, mace, club,
conch, disc, an iron bar, a fire arm, a clubshaped
bludgeon etc and a bleeding human
skull. She embodies the tamas attribute of Sri
Candi.
Mahalaksmi is of motley colours as she
is recipient of multiple hue from numerous gods
and divinities. Her face is white, hands are
blue whereas her feet are crimson. She is
eighteen-armed. She caries in her hands a
rosary, lotus, an arrow, sword, a thunder-bolt,
mace, disc, trident, conch, a gong, noose, a
36
Orissa Review * October - 2004
spear, a drinking vessel and a kamandalu etc.
She embodies the rajas attribute of Sri Candi.
she confers on her devotee great erudition (esa
sampujita bhaktya sarvajnatvam
prayachhati)
Maha Saraswati is eight-armed. She
embodies the sattvik aspect of Sri Candi. She
holds in her hands an arrow, a club, a pestle,
conch, disc, gong, a plough and an arch etc.
She confers wisdom on her devotee.
Efficaciousness of Candi Reading
Matsya Purana prescribes repetitioin of
three times of Candi recitation (triravrtta) for
cure from physical ailments, for relief from
malefic planets five times (pancavrtta); from
impending disaster seven times; for ensuring
peace nine times; for winning royal favours
eleven times; for overpowering foes twelve
times; for release from prison twentyfive times;
for cure from cancer thirty times; for relief from
great dishonour a hundred times; to mitigate
loss of wealth and for steady prosperity one
thousand times etc.
An aspirant devotee enjoys all prosperity
and disease-free life if he involves himself in
the reading of Candi. One who does not aspire
for material prosperity can also gain
scholarship. Maharaja Suratha in the days of
yore got unmixed prosperity whereas the
merchant (Vais'ya) Samadhi was endowed
with divine knowledge. If Sri Candi is pleased,
she confers on her astute devotees both earthly
prosperity and erudition (Sa yacita ca
vijnanam tusta rddhim prayachhati).
Obligatory Prelude to Candi Patha
Before reciting the Candi text one should
bear in mind that the Rg Veda (125th hymn of
Xth mandala) contains the essence of the
Mother Spirit. The famous hymn therein is
known as Devi Sukta or Vak Sukta, expressed
through a woman-seer named Vak, daughter of
Maharsi Ambhruna. This Devi Sukta is the
gateway to the Candi text.
It has also been prescribed that a
dedicated devout should, before the
commencement of reading of Candi, read
Argala Stotra, Kilaka Stava and Devi Kavaca
in a sequential order. Argala is a door-closing
device. One should unhook it for smooth
passage. It contains 27 couplets. Soon after
reading out the Argala one should concentrate
on the Kilak Stava. The Kilaka is another
device for obstruction. It is a curse levied by
Mahadeva on the Candi text so that no layman
can have access to Candi for selfish purposes.
The Kilaka Stava contains 16 couplets. The
Devi Kavaca then follows it. Kavaca means a
shield. By reading this a devotee shields both
his mind and body for an unimpeded journey
in life. So many divinities including nine forms
of Durga, seven Matrkas, ten Dikpala-s etc are
invoked in this stava to make the devotee
invincible and inviolable and worthy of
studying the Candi text. Japet saptasati candim
krtva kavacamaditah / Nirvighnena bhavet
siddhiscandijapa - samudbhava. This kavaca
authored by Hariharabrahma contains sixty
couplets. After reading out all these and
complying with all instructions therein, one
should commence on reading the Candi text
with profound concentration.
Reference :
1. Chakravartty Rasmohan, Sri Candi, published
by M. Bhattacharya & Co., Calcutta, 1360
(Bengali Year).
Shri Raj Kishore Mishra former Secretary Orissa
Sahitya Akademi lives at N1/A-27, IRC Village,
Nayapalli, Bhubaneswar.
37
Orissa Review * October - 2004
The Supreme deity of the Tantra is known as
the Sakti, inseparable from Siva. It is the Sakti
in the Tantra which is said to have brought the
Universe into existence, and that preserves it
from the disruptive forces. She governs the
Universe and overwhelms us with wonder and
awe. In other words it can be said that Sakti
denotes divine energy, glorifying the Mother
aspect of God. This Universe, is begotten of
her free will, who is the beginning of all. She
is Kali, Tara, Bhubanesvari, Bagala, Bhairavi,
Chinnamasta, Matangi and Kamala. She
appears at times to destroy the Asuras and
assumes four hands and occasionally two, six,
eight, ten or even thousand hands. She resides
in the cremation ground, where all the worldly
objects are being reduced to ashes. Maha Sakti
is Maha Yogini connecting the links of creation,
preservation and destruction of the Universe.
She creates the Universe, preserve it and
destroy it with all its animate and inanimate
objects. She is worshipped as Adya, being the
beginning of all. She is the origin of all and,
She is said to be the great creator and the
commander of all.
In the form of the Mother Goddess she
was the popular deity in the ancient period. A
terracotta figurine from Harappa represent a
nude female with a plant issuing out of her
womb. She represents mother Sakambhari.
Kautilya mentioned "Devi" in his Arthasastra
as a spirit of vegetation in connection with the
sowing of seeds. From the Earth Goddess she
was later conceived as the war Goddess for
the protection of her devotees. The cult of Sakti
worship is thus wide and varied both in space
and time. Her most common feature is that she
has beautiful yellow complexion and her arms
holds weapons to kill Mahisasura.
In the earliest epigraphical evidence
regarding Sakti worship in Orissa, we find
mention in the Teresingha Plate of Maharaja
Tushtikara, who worshipped the goddess Sakti
in the name of Stambhesvari. He ruled as an
independent king over the Kalahandi region
during 5th - 6th century A.D and worshipped
Goddess Stambhesvari (Stambhesvari Pada
Bhakta). It is also revealed from the copper
plate grants of Sulki family, who ruled as
subordinate rulers under the Bhaumakaras in
9th -10th century A.D that they were the great
devotees of goddess Stambhesvari. She was
worshipped as a 'Kula-devata' or tutelary deity
of the Sulki dynasty. It is written in the plates
of Ranastambha 'Asya Kuladevata-Bhagavati-
Stambhesvari-Bhattarikam-Sakshini-Krutva'.
The Hindol Plate of Kulastambha also refers
to the grant having been made the 'Kuladevata
-Stambhesvari- Bhattarika'. Futher it is written
'Asmad Kula-Devata Stambhesvari-
Sakti Worship in Orissan Inscriptions
Bharati Pal
38
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Bhattarika -Pramani Krutya'. The Hindol
Plate of the same king contains a similar
statement, with some addition to the epithet of
Stambhesvari. It describes the gift as having
been witnessed by the 'Kuladevata'
Stambhesvari who is worshipped by the gods,
demons, learned men and ascetics, as "danamidam-
asmad-adi-Kuladevatam-bhoga-vtim-
S u r - a s u r a - v i d v a i n M u n i - m a n u j a -
Vandita-Srimat Stambhesvari-Bhattarikam-
Pramani Krutya Pratipaditam -asmai" .
Besides the king Sulki, in the Plates of
Bhanja Ranabhanjadeva, we get reference of
goddess Stambhesvari. The epithet written as
'Samadhigata-Pancha-Mahasabda' describe
him as having obtained the favour of the
goddess Stambhesvari. (Stambhesvari-
Labdha-Vara- Prasada).
As regards the Stambhesvari, the family
deity of the Sulkis, it is said that the
represention of goddess was probably made
out on a Stambha indicating a Siva-Linga, Such
a Linga with the representation of the Sakti is
no doubt found among the sculptural remains
of Eastern India. It should, however be pointed
out that whatever may have been the form of
the goddess worshipped by the Sulkis, the deity
Stambhesvari is still adored by the people of
the different castes of Orissa and in some parts
of the country under the Prkritic name
Khambesvari and in the shape of a post or
pillar. Therefore the word Stambhesvari seems
to indicate merely the goddess of the pillars
without any special association with the Siva
linga.
The cult of this goddess is an instance of
the Hinduization of an autochthonous deity,
whose worship is still prevalent in Western
Orissa, although she is no longer always
represented by a post.
In the Chamunda Image Inscription of
Vatsadevi of Bhumakara dynasty , we get
reference of Sakti worship. Queen Vatsadevi
installed the image of goddess Chamunda in
the Trilochana temple at Jajpur. The inscription
simply refers that "Siddham-Rajni-
Vatsadevayah Kirttih" (Let there be success.
This image of goddess Chamunda is the fame
of the queen Vatsadevi.)
In the Jatesingha and Dungri Plates of
Mahasivagupta of Somavamsi dynasty there is
mention of the establishment of goddess 'Sri
Panchambari Bhadrambika' in Suvarnapura,
who at the prayer of all people grant them boons
in her mercy. We also get reference of Sakti
worship during the Suryavamsi period. In the
Warangal Inscription of Raghudeva we get the
name goddess 'Gangamangalam Chandi'. It is
mentioned that he was the devotee of goddess
Gangamangala Chandi or Durga and also
having been a favourite son of the goddess
Durga.
In the Balasore Plate of Purushottama
deva, the charter begins with the line "Sri Jaya
Durgayai Namah".
References
1. Sakti and Her Episode -Pushpendra Kumar-
PP 1-5
2. Hindol Plates of Kulastambha, Epigraphia
Indica -Vol -28- PP 111 -112, D.C Sircar
3. Chamunda Image Inscription-E.I. Vol-28-P-
184 - D, C Sircar
4. Inscriptions of Orissa - Vol-IV, P-219, S.N
Rajguru.
5. King, Brahamanas and Temples of Orissa-
Upinder singh PP -106
6. Inscriptions of Suryavamsi Gajapati,
R. Subramanyam, PP -64 & P -127-
Bharati Pal is an Asst. Curator (Epigraphy) in the Orissa
State Museum at Bhubaneswar.
39
Orissa Review * October - 2004
In the year 1915, Gandhiji returned from South
Africa to India with his successful experiments
on 'Satyagraha'. He also made further
experiments on Satyagraha at Champaran
(1917), in the Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)
and against the Rowlatt Act (1919). His
Satyagraha is based upon a cardinal principle
of truth and non-violence. He advocates in his
Young India, "Non-violence is the law of our
species as violence is the law of the brute."1
His pragmatism made him to realise that it was
too difficult to raise a war against a mighty
power like English. But to energise the spirit
among the people of India, he enthusiastically
encouraged to carry out a peaceful resistance
against the British rule in India. His political
messages emboldened with philosophies
electrified the nationalist sentiments of the
people irrespective of caste, creed and
religion.
The Jallianwall Bagh Massacre of 13th
April, 1919 at Amritsar gave rise to Khilafat
Movement and it paved the way for Hindu-
Muslim unity in Lucknow Session of All India
Congress Committee (AICC) meet. The
combined efforts of Hindus and Muslims in
the form of granting liberty to Swami
Sraddhanand to preach from the pulpit of Jama
Masjid and permitting Dr. Kitchlu to hold the
key of Golden Temple at Amritsar could not
break the audacity of the British authorities:
the Rowlatt Act was not revoked; there was
no sign of making any
amends for the
atrocities in the
Punjab, or granting
Swaraj to the
nationalists. The
Khilafat Non-
C o o p e r a t i o n
Movement was not a
successful one.
In the special
session held in
September 1920 at
Calcutta, Gandhi
suggested to carry out
a non-cooperation
movement against the
Government so long
the latter would not
redress the follies
committed by her and
also would promise to
satisfy the nationalist urge for self-government.
All the Congress leaders present there extended
their enthusiastic support to Gandhiji. Once
again, it was endorsed in the Annual Meet of
AICC held in Nagpur in the month of December
Reminiscence of Gandhiji's Visits to Puri
Dr. Binodini Das
40
Orissa Review * October - 2004
1920. Gandhiji instructed the Non- Cooperation
programme to be launched in a peaceful manner
with boycotting government educational
institutions, organisations, offices, law courts,
and legislatures, etc. Side by side, this
programme was to be constructively oriented,
i.e. to popularise the cult of Charkha and Khadi.
This was, of course, a dynamic move and had
brought dynamic changes in the attitudes and
activities of the Congress leaders.
Gandhiji's charismatic appeal mobilised
the people struggling for Swaraj in India. An
urge was felt that Gandhi should make visits
to different provinces in order to baptize the
people with his political mission imbued with
socio-economic development programmes.
This would, of course, lead to gather momentum
and to provide impetus among the people.
Orissa was also infested with same impulses.
It was Gopabandhu Das of village Suando of
Puri district who, like Bhagiratha, persuaded
Gandhiji to visit Orissa. And accordingly,
Gandhiji paid his first visit to Orissa on 23rd
March 1921. He reached at Cuttack on the same
day and delivered his speech in different
meetings. Then he went to Bhadrak from where
he returned back to Satyabadi School on 27th
to see its functioning. One thing appealed him
here was that he noticed the spark of
nationalism among the poor sections of the
society who, ignoring their utter poverty,
contributed paisa, pie and its fragmental units.2
On the same day, Gandhiji with his
followers like Kasturba, Rajendra Prasad, etc.
proceeded to Puri where he received a hearty
welcome from a large crowd from which a
pretty number hailed from the remote areas.
He addressed a large crowd-nearly 50,000 in
number-in front of Simhadvara of the Great
Temple. He also addressed the women in a
special meeting "on the same day. Another
notable event that deserves to be illustrated
here is that Gandhiji raised his voice of protest
against the use of foreign clothes in the temple
of Lord Jagannath and also made it a general
issue in the public meeting at Puri. As a result,
the people of Puri put a pressure on the temple
authorities to stop the use of such practices.
Gopabandhu in his editorial in "The Samaja"
on 18 June 1921, strongly advocated the old
practice of the temple rituals in which no
foreign element of any sort was used.3 As a
result of this bold pressure, the chief priest of
the temple made an appeal to the people of the
country not to offer any kind of foreign clothes
to the deities as they were pledged to use only
Swadeshi articles for worship.4
During his second visit to Orissa on 5th
December 1927, Gandhiji spent 8th December
at Banpur and from there he went to Bolagarh
on 9th where he spent three days consecutively.
On 11th, while he was busy in talking with
Dinabandhu Andrews, he saw a bent old man
holding a piece of straw in his mouth came to
him. The man prostrated himself before
Gandhiji. He learnt from the o1d man that as
he was an untouchable; he did this only to show
proper respect to Gandhiji. Furthermore, the
old man told that the people of his caste were
used to country liquor and also ate the flesh of
dead animals. Gandhiji was really shocked at
this information. The man again .expressed his
sad plight that it was not possible on his part
to follow Gandhiji's advice because of the fear
of being made outcast by his fellow-men. This
time Gandhiji did not insist on him to contribute
something for the national cause. But he
pressurised the old man to practise three
principles. They were: (i) he should not
prostrate before anybody else; (ii) he should
not be addicted to any kind of alcoholic drinks;
41
Orissa Review * October - 2004
and (iii) he should not eat the flesh of the dead
animals. Out of grief and remorse, Gandhiji
wrote: "I have never seen in any place such
kind of dead-peace."5
Gandhiji started his historic Padayatra
from Puri on 9th May 1934. He attended the
'Gandhi Seba Sangha' Conference at Beraboi
in Puri district in the year 1938 along with his
wife Kasturba, Maulana Azad, Rajendra
Prasad, Sardar Patel and others, but not
Jawaharlal Nehru. In his address at Beraboi
Conference, Gandhiji highlighted the Hindu-
Muslim conflict and also suggested for the
necessity of organisation of a peace-force
(Santisena). He also clarified the aims and
objectives of peace- force. Of course, the
peace-force started its initiative programme
from Puri.6
There is no need to evaluate the historic
importance of Gandhiji's Puri visits or other
visits to different parts of Orissa. He preached
the doctrine of self-sacrifice, self- reliance and
self-sustenance among the people of Orissa.
We should accept that Gandhian touch
revolutionised the people's mind in Orissa as
a result of which they rose from their slumber
and exhibited their potency in the freedom
struggle for India.
References :
1. Cf. Bipan Chandra, Modern India, NCERT, New
Delhi, 1971, p.265.
2. "Puri Jilla Swadhinata Samgramara Itihasa" (Or),
Harihara Bahinipati, published in Orissare
Swadhinata Samgrama (Or), Utkal Pustak
Samsad, Benod Biehari, Cuttack, 1998, p.138.
3. K.M. Patra and Bandita Devil An Advanced
History of Orissa, Kalyani Publishers, New
Delhi-Calcutta-Cuttack, 1996, p.227.
4. The Samaja, 22nd June 1921.
5. "Puri Jilla Swadhinata Samgramara Itihasa,"
op.cit., p.139.
6. Ramadevi Choudhury, Jivan Pathe, Grantha
Mandira, Binod Behari, Cuttack, 1984, p.120.
Dr. Binodini Das is working in the P.G. Department of
History, Ravenshaw (Autonomous) College, Cuttack.
Shri Debasis Nayak, Minister for Information & Public
Relations, Sports and Youth Services inaugurating the
Conference of Information & Public Relations Officers at
Bhubaneswar on 16.10.2004. Dr. Subas Pani, Chief
Secretary of Orissa is seen addressing the Conference.
Shri Digamber Mohanty, Commissioner-cum-Secretary and
Shri Baishnab Prasad Mohanty, Director, I & P.R are also
present.
42
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Intensification of agriculture through massive
adoption of high yielding cultivation, increased
use of synthetic inputs like chemical fertilizers
and pesticides, greater exploitation of irrigation
potentiality of surface and ground water
resources and farm mechanization have largely
been responsible for a spectacular achievement
in the food grain production that we have
achieved over past three decades.
Paradoxically however overexploitation of
natural and renewable resources and
indiscriminate and irrational use of synthetic
inputs like inorganic fertilizers and pesticides
in view of producing more and more from unit
piece of land are being increasingly realized
to seriously impair the ecological balance and
putting the environment in jeopardy. High
yielding cultivation is more fertilizer
responsive which often led to aggravation of
pest problem as the plants become succulent
enough to be fed upon by a variety of crop pests.
This in turn necessitates increasingly huge
amount of pesticides to combat pest problem.
Increased use of pesticides has emerged as a
potential source of danger to sustainability of
environment that endangers the existence of all
forms of life on this planet. Perils and pitfalls
of pesticides have been well evidenced due to
their residual toxicity in our food chain. From
a number of trials conducted across the country,
toxic residues of pesticides have been revealed
in the food stuff not only of plant but also of
animal origin like milk and milk products, fish,
meat and egg etc. at concentrations much higher
than the permissible level of human body.
Therefore the apparent contradiction of our
necessity for nutritional security on one hand
and environmental sustainability on the other
makes it inevitable to resort to the organic or
eco-farming system as it appears to be a
possible option to meet both these objectives.
The later implies a farming system that
primarily aims at cultivating land and raising
crops under ecologically favourable condition.
It emphasizes restricting the use of chemical
inputs whether it is inorganic fertilizers or
pesticides and instead, relies more on an
integrated approach of crop management
practices making use of cultural, biological and
natural inputs. Addition of organic manures
such as FYM, recycling of organic wastes
through composting, green manures and
biological inputs like vermicomposts and
biofertilizers etc. constitute important
components for plant nutrient management in
organic farming. similarly it also takes utmost
advantage of the natural mechanism for pest
management with utilization of bioagents such
as predators and parasites available in nature
in plenty and the botanical pesticides which
Organic Farming for Sustainable Agriculture
Dr. B.B. Mishra
Dr. K.C. Nayak
43
Orissa Review * October - 2004
are effective in controlling crop pests posing
no risk to the environment. Agronomic practices
such as crop rotation with judicious selection
of crops, inter cropping and companion
cropping, stubble mulching and use of resistant
varieties are among the important factors
contributing to organic farming.
Organic Manures in Organic Farming
Organic manure in a broad sense
includes composts from rural and urban wastes,
crop residues, agro industrial bio wastes and
green manures, apart from the commonly used
FYM. Organic manure improves soil physical
condition including soil porosity and water
holding capacity and microbial environment,
replenishes essential micronutrients in soil,
increases the utilisation efficiency of applied
fertilizers and favours micronutrient
availability to the plant. Organic manure is of
paramount importance not only in augmenting
the crop production but also for making the
agriculture sustainable as an ecofriendly means
of soil health management. It is well established
that FYM plays an additional role than its
capacity to contibute NPK. Unlike chemical
fertilizers that supply only the major nutrients,
FYM is a store house of several plant nutrients
and acts as a good soil conditioner.
Green manuring has recently been under
practice by our farmers for decades. Estimates
suggest that a 40-50 days old green manure crop
can supply up to 80-100 kg. N/ha. Even if half
of this N is crop utilizable, a green manure
crop can be a substitute to 50-60 kg. fertilizer
N/ha. Some of the potential green manuring
legumes are dhanicha, sunhemp, cowpea, mung,
bean, guar and berseem etc. Dhanicha,
sunhemp, mung bean and guar grown during
kharif season as green manure crops have been
reported to contribute 8-21 tones of green
matter and 42-95 kg. of N/ha. Similarly,
Khesari, cowpea and berseem grown during
rabi season can contribute 12-29 tons of green
matter and 67-68 kg of N/ha.
Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is an effective means
of composting the decomposable organic
wastes using earthworms naturally present in
the soil. Vermicomposting is a mixture of worm
casts enriched with macro and micronutrients
(N, P, K, Mn., Fe, Mo, B, Cu and Zn.), some
growth regulating substances such as
gibberellins and auxins) and useful micro flora
(Azospirillum, Actinomyces and
Phosphobacillus) etc. The nutrient level of
vermicompost (1-1.5%N, 0.6-0.8% P and 1.2-
1.5 K) is higher than any other compost. From
the available information it is well documented
that earthworms can consume all types of
organic matter and convert them into available
form of nutrients. Vermicompost improves the
physical and biological condition of soil,
improves soil fertility and pulverizes it through
their churning and turning action in addition to
contributing plant nutrients, improves aeration
and water holding capacity. It is reported that
soils with casts contain 5 times nitrogen, 7 times
phosphorus, 11 times potash, 2 times
magnesium and 7-8 times actinomyces more
than in soils without earth worm casts. It being
a natural means of soil fertility management
fits well into integrated plant nutrient
management strategy for sustainable
agriculture.
Exploitation of Biological Nitrogen Fixation
Atmosphere containing as much as 78%
nitrogen can be a potential source of this
essential nutrient to soil utilizing the nature's
own mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation.
It not only offers an economic and ecofriendly
44
Orissa Review * October - 2004
source of nutrient supply, moreover evidences
show that nitrogen so derived is less prone to
loss than fertilizer nitrogen and as a long term
effect it builds up a reserve of readily
mineralizable organic nitrogen. Thus it plays
an important role in sustainable agriculture,
reduces the requirement of externally applied
nitrogen fertilizer and favourably influences the
soil microenvironment. BNF is a natural system
of biological mobilization of atmospheric
nitrogen which can be easily available to and
utilized by plants mediated by microorganisms
like some eubacteria, cynobacteria,
actinomyces and a few archaebacteria which
are commonly called diazotrophs. They have
the ability to convert atmospheric elemental
nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) with the help
of nitrogenase enzyme system. The efficacy of
true bacteria like Rhizobium, Azotobacter,
Azospirillum and cynobacteria like Anabaena,
Aulosira, Nostoc, Plectonema and Tolypothrix
etc. have already been well established under
field conditions and such microbial inoculants
have gained wide acceptance due to their high
nitrogen fixing potentiality.
Cultural Recommendations
Minimum Tillage
The conventional tillage operation has
disastrous effect on soil erosion causing
greater loss of nutrients. This has led to
necessity of stubble mulching. In the stubble
mulching the soil is protected by the crop
residues left on the soil surface during fallow
periods. This has now become well
established that in stead of frequent tillage
operations minimum tillage is more useful not
only because it offers cost effectiveness but
also contributes to conservation of soil and
moisture. Available information reveals that it
gives as good as or even better yield than the
conventional tillage practices. It aims at
reducing tillage to the minimum, necessary for
ensuring a good seed bed, rapid germination,
satisfactory crop stand and favourable growing
conditions.
Selection of Crops for Crop Rotation, Inter
Cropping and Companion Cropping
Crop rotation has an important role to
play in organic farming. Judicious selection of
crops in crop rotation helps in efficient
utilization of plant nutrient from different depths
of soil. The practice of inter cropping also
helps in minimizing the risk of crop failure due
to uncertain rainfall and infestation of pest and
diseases. Available information reveals that in
case of inter cropping of sorphum and red gram
at 2:1 row ratio it resulted in 70% higher yield
over the individual cropping of both the crops.
Besides it also reduced the wilt diseases of
red gram. Another advantage was that nitrogen
fixed by the red gram could be utilized by the
sorghum crop. Another trial of companion
cropping comprising of three rows of gram
followed by one row of linseed revealed that
incidence of pod borer in gram as well as fly
in linseed was remarkably reduced and yield
also increased by about 14% in this inter
cropping over the sole cropping of both the
crops.
Integrated Pest management
The multifarious harmful consequences
of indiscriminate use of pesticides have
cropped up as a serious threat to the ecosystem.
In view of the fact that increased use of
pesticides has been drastically endangering the
environmental sustainability, integrated
approach to pest management needs adequate
importance to make the agriculture ecofriendly.
45
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Like integrated plant nutrient
management, IPM also makes use of an ideal
combination of physical, chemical, biological
and cultural methods to contain pest damage
with minimum ecological implication. It takes
the utmost advantage of natural mechanism of
pest suppression. Modifications of crop
environment to make it unfavourable for
infestation of pests, use of resistant cultivars
and transgenic alongwith a judicious and need
based use of preferably safer chemicals are
the major components of IPM. Biocontrol is
an integral component of integrated pest
management strategy. It employs natural
mechanism of pest suppression in which the
natural agents like predators, parasites and
microbial agents suppress the pest population.
If the natural enemies can be effectively
conserved, the need of other control will
automatically reduce.
Dr B.B. Mishra and Dr. K.C. Nayak are presently
working in the Minor Irrigation and Water Use Training
Institute at Bhubaneswar.
Shri Naveen Patnaik, Hon'ble Chief Minister laying foundation stone of Jayadev Road
under Special PMGSY at Balianta on 11.10.2004.
46
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Many women in Indian society have been
victims of humiliation, torture and exploitation
for as long as we have written records of social
organisation and family life, although she is
the center point of the family. Her role in the
family and society is versatile. The health of
woman is the concern of the family and
community and is very useful for the healthy
life of a community." A sound mind lives in
and gives a sound body." This saying clearly
brings to light the importance of the body.
Without proper health there cannot be a proper
frame of mind. Herbert Spencer has rightly
observed - "To be a good animal is the first
requisite to success in life and to be a nation
of good animals is the first condition to national
property." The distinguishing feature between
a man and animal is intelligence and
rationality. Rationality, a product of mind,
therefore cannot function properly unless we
have a healthy mind.
The objective of our life is to establish
adjustment with the changes that continuously
go on in the environment. In order to achieve
this objective, it is necessary to have an
integrated and balanced mentality. Every
individual tries to solve the complications that
come in her/his own physical way. Some times
Women and Mental-Health : A Rural Scenario
Dr. Alhadini Dhir
one achieves success and some times faces
failure. In case of failure frustration arises. So
the persons that are not able to tolerate and
successfully face frustrations in their life
develop various mental problems.
Mind is the master of the body. When
the mental condition is good a woman may take
various responsibilities of a family and herself.
She may understand the complications, try to
solve them, plan for future and may adjust
happily with others. So she may become
mentally strong.
The percentage of uneducated women in
rural and tribal area is high till today. To
manage all the tasks of the family they may face
some hurdles. If this situation will continue for
a longer period the woman is unable to
maintain her daily work. The time she thinks
that she cannot take so be understood that she
has some mental problem. There is a say "if
the forest will be burnt every body will know
but if the mind is burnt no body knows."
Therefore mental health is completely different
from physical health and mental health
problems are more important than physical
health problems. This is the high time to take it
into account and provide proper treatment.
47
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Common Causes of Mental Health
Problems :
Self Esteem
It is an attitude of respecting self and
others. Self-esteem, worth and identity are
closely related to feeling of adequacy and
social approval is the need to feel good about
self and worthy of respect of others. The
woman who feels that she has some
contribution towards her family and neighbour,
she feels having self-esteem has its early
foundation in childhood. This development
depends upon the behaviour of the important
persons related to her, such as, father, mother,
brother, sister, neighbour, teacher, mentor and
preacher. If these persons give her importance,
admire and encourage while performing
difficult tasks, she feels herself more valuable.
In some situation girls get less
opportunity to develop their self-esteem. For
example : in a family boys are provided
facilities to read and attend school regularly,
to take a lion share of qualitative food. The
girls feel inferior in all such circumstances.
Gradually these experiences become so intense
that even after marriage they do not expect good
food or clothing, good behaviour from in-laws,
care during illness and the necessity of
developing knowledge and skill.
Self-esteem is a part of mental health. A
woman having good mental health realize that
she can face problems in her day-to-day life.
To develop self-esteem she should recognize
her value within herself about which she may
not be aware. This will influence her attitude
towards her health.
Mental Pressure in Daily Life
Mental pressure is a vital cause of mental
health problems which arise due to various
conditions such as hard work, being scolded
by others without any fault and so on. Even
during pleasure situations like getting a job or
a childbirth, there is mental pressure as these
events bring changes in her life. Sometimes she
ignores her illness and works hard. She
believes in sacrificing herself while taking care
of others. This causes a great problem.
In our society a barren woman has no
importance. A mother of so many daughters not
of a son also suffers from mental pressure.
Death and Loss of Property
In the death of near or dear ones, or in
loss of service, home or valuable property
woman becomes very sad. If unfortunately she
becomes ill or handicapped, then she will be
depressed. Crying is a natural reaction, which
provides mental relaxation to some extent in
the above situations. But in many families it
may not be possible to cry at least. This also
leads to mental problems.
Changes in Life and Society
Migration due to war calamities, forced
displacements and poverty may be responsible
because they change the life and society, which
has great impact on individual and family.
Mental Shock
Violence in family, rape, torture, cruelty,
natural and manmade calamities give maximum
shock to the woman. So she becomes afraid,
feels insecured and helpless and does not
believe the surrounding. In such cases it will
take time to cure the person.
Physical Problem
Some mental health problems are also the result
of some physical problems. Those are -
- hormonal changes in the body
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Orissa Review * October - 2004
- Malnutrition
- Contamination of HIV
- Gas pollution, insecticide, pesticide etc.
- Kidney and pancreatic diseases
- Excess use of medicine, wine etc.
Common Mental Health Problems of Rural
Women
In crisis the mental state of women may
be affected more due to sensitiveness. It is not
so easy to know the minds of others. Because
- There is no specific margin between
normal reaction to any event or situation
of life and reaction to the same with
mental problem.
- Each individual may face some or less
difficulties in life. People show different
types of symptoms in different situation.
- Symptoms may vary from place to place.
Some behaviour may not be accepted by
others but it may be normal for a
particular region according to their
culture.
Sorrow
Death and disappearance of loved ones
may be the cause of sorrow. But if the following
symptoms will continue for a long time, it will
be clear that she has some mental problem.
- Unhappiness in maximum time
- Sleeps more than normal or does not
sleep at all
- Unable to think clearly
- No interest in daily work, taking food
or sexual activity etc.
- Various physical problems may appear
without cause eg. Headache, abdominal
pain etc.
- Speaks slowly and walks slowly Feels
weak
- Think about death and suicide.
Worry and Anxiety
Worry is described as "imaginary fear"
which is specific to the situation. Anxiety is a
generalized emotional state. Anxiety often
develops after a frequent and intense worry
that undermines self-confidence. The other
common names of these feelings may be
tension, neurological complication and weak
heart. Each individual may come across such
type of feeling and after some time may be
normal. In case it increases, continues or
becomes serious, happens without cause, we
may say it as mental problem. Intense sorrow
at long run may lead to commit suicide. The
symptoms are :
- Frequent movement of hands
- Sweating
- Feels suffocation without any
cardiological problem.
- Incapable to think clearly
- Complain frequently about physical
problem without illness.
Simple Depression
The outstanding symptoms in simple
depression are a loss of enthusiasm and a
general slowing down of mental and physical
activity. The individual feels dejected and
discouraged. Work and other activities require
tremendous effort and some how do not seem
worth bothering with any way. Feelings of
unworthy, failure, sinfulness and guilt dominate
her sluggish thought process. Her loss of
interest in things about her extends to eating
and usually reflected in loss of weight and
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Orissa Review * October - 2004
digestive difficulties such as constipation.
Conversation is carried on in a monotone, and
questions are answered with a meager supply
of words. In general she prefers just to sit alone
and seeing no hope for the future.
As it is noted suicidal preoccupation is
common and actual suicide attempts may be
made.
Mental Shock
People exposed to automobile accidents,
explosions, fire, earthquakes, and tornados,
sexual assault or other terrifying experiences
frequently show shock reactions. Other events
such as social disgrace, imprisonment and
severe financial losses may prove extremely
traumatic. In these cases shock may show a
wide range of symptoms depending on the
nature and severity of the terrifying experience,
the degree of surprise and the personality make
up of the individual. Among the victims of
tornados, fires and other catastrophes a
"disaster syndrome" has been delineated that
causes -
- Inability to think clearly,
- Inability to concentrate,
- Difficulty in decision making,
- Extreme sensitivity,
- Discouragement
- Sleep disturbances
- Excessive sweating
- Sustained Muscle tension
- Remembering all the furious events and
dreams at night or may not sleep at all.
- Trials to remain away from the person
or place, which are associated with that
event.
- Feelings of unsafe and insecurity and
does not get a sound sleep.
- Anger with past event or feels ashamed.
- Guilty feelings as she is escaped and
others died or severely injured.
- Violent behaviours at times and does not
know what she is doing.
The above reactions are very normal.
But it becomes severe and recognizable after
a month of the particular event. Then only it is
known that the person has mental health
problems. The consequences are -
- raising the rate of heart beat
- raising blood pressure
- frequent breathing/laboured breathing
- poor alimentary functions leading to
acidity, ulcer etc.
We always give importance to physical
causes of illness. But we should be very
sensitive towards the emotional causes of
illness also. There are some ways to remove
the stress and strain of mind. Motivation and
awareness are necessary to solve the problem.
By acquiring Knowledge, changing Attitude
(Attitude is the mood, reflection, feelings,
position or idea shown by our facial
expressions, posture of our body, tone of voice,
words and action.) and Practising the best one
(KAP) the village women can live happily.
Self Help and Helping Others
There is no particular provision for
mental treatment in many places. Woman can
do a lot of work by using minimum resource
or she can make good friendship with others.
It has great impact on her life style which may
be helpful to maintain good mental health.
i) Ability to maintain balance with the
situation :
Women do not save time to take care of
themselves. It is not at all good for her. She
should do things according to her choice. Many
times we do not care for very minor activities
50
Orissa Review * October - 2004
like spending a little time alone, shopping,
gardening, cooking with friends, singing a song
or playing a musical instrument which may help
us to maintain mental balance.
Generally, we see that when we have
worked for sometime we get tired. The
tiredness is nothing but fatigue. It may be
physiological or psychological. Fatigue is a
sum total of all those factors that are
responsible for diminishing the working
capacity. Rest provides mental relaxation. Due
to this mental relaxation the body and mind
become fresh and becomes possible for a
woman to take up work again.
ii) To remove the negative experiences from
mind :
It is difficult "to make up one's mind"
especially when each alternative offers values
that the others do not and the choice is an
important one. When we cannot open our heart
to others, write it as poem, story or draw as
picture. For this purpose it is not necessary to
be a good artist. Simply we can express our
feelings. It will give good result.
iii) To create and be amidst pleasing
atmosphere :
Our home may be small one, but we can
do things as we wish, like Decorate our home
with alpana or flowers. Learn to make various
decorative articles. Listen to music, enjoy
natural scenes, spend time in our kitchen
garden or flower garden.
iv) To practice some traditional habits :
Tradition, custom, culture and belief help
us to be mentally strong. We should acquire
and practise some habits which may be helpful.
Physical Exercise gives corrective,
mental and moral benefits -(1) Power of
judgement (2) Tolerance (3) Power of
determination.
Moral benefits bring about social efficiency -
- Discipline
- Self-control and self-confidence
- Team spirit
- Co-operation
- Mutual helpfulness
- Courage and
- Skill.
Exercise like walking, jogging, playing
etc. make one generally happier, calmer and
more clear headed. Relaxation can improve the
ability to think clearly. Examples - Breathing,
Meditation, Prayer, Yoga etc. A more exacting
form of Yoga, under the direction of a trained
practitioner, helps to develop a spiritual sense
of inner strength and control. The mental skills
are thinking analysing and perceiving the
situation. We can take it as a challenge and an
opportunity to show our skill. Develop our
emotional skill. Handle the negative emotions.
Learn the advantages of emotional balance by
diverting them into constructive work.
v) To keep good relationship :
Two or more persons determine to know
and understand each other - between friends,
relatives where they are working together. In
this situation both sides, agree to listen to each
other. They express their common problems
during this time.
vi) To make friendship :
When two persons understand each other
gradually there will be a good friendship. It
will take sometime to have faith upon each
other. Then only one can express her mental
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Orissa Review * October - 2004
problem to the other. It can be done in a group
also. They will listen to each other, may find
solution, help somebody and realise the benefit
of making friendship. The experiences may not
be equal therefore are should-
- Try to listen sincerely to others
- Try to understand others' feeling
- Don't pretend while listening, rather try
to recollect our experience which may
be same to some extent.
- Think only one thing -"how to help her".
- Don't disclose one's confidential matter
to others. But if it is necessary to save
her life you may disclose it with her
consent.
Conclusion
The health of India means the health of
rural people who are about 80% of the
population. Health is primarily a personal
responsibility just as religion. It is well known
that how difficult to make the horse drink though
it may be taken to the water front. The living
example is the failure of the latrine programme
and of keeping up the environment clean.
What is then lacking ? Womens' active
participation and their own realization that
Health (Physical or Mental) is their own
property, not of the Government of the country.
Besides there are other components in
community living, which should be
simultaneously handled.
Control of our emotions are under our
own control if we accept facts we should
remember that happiness doesnot depend upon
who we are or what we have. It depends upon
solely what we think.
Reference
1. Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life, by
James C.Coleman.
2. Child Development, by Elizabeth B.Hurlock.
3. Health Education and Hygiene, by B.C.Rai.
4. Indian Journal of Public Health, Vol.28/1984.
Dr. Alhadini Dhir is the Lecturer (SS) in Home Science,
K.K.S.Women's College in the District of Balasore.
Shri Naveen Patnaik, Hon'ble Chief Minister giving
away prizes to the students on the occasion of the
celebration of 50th Wild Life Week at Jayadev
Bhawan on 7.10.2004.
52
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Krishi Vigyan Kendra ( K.V.K. ) ia a noble
concept develoed by Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) which was rest
upon a solid base of transfer of tehnology from
laboratory to farmer's field with respect to
Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal Husbandary,
Flouriculture. Bee keeping, Mushroom
Cultivation, Broiler Farming and allied
subjects. As per the recommendations of
Mohan Singh Meheta Committee during 1974,
K.V.K.s were established in difereent states.
Gradually working guidelines are prepared to
make the K.V.K. as the light house for the rural
people.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
emphasized on the research on agriculture and
allied subject during 1960's to generate new
technology for increasing crop production in
different agroclimatic zones of the country. A
lot of technologies were generated through
constant effort of the scientists to boost up the
production. But the technologies so generated
in the research field are not transferred through
extension agencies of different state
Government. It is observed that a lot of
technologies could not reach the farmer due to
high cost of adoption, lack of the interest of
the extension agencies. Hence the transfer of
the technology was not complete and effective.
Later on K.V.Ks were established for easy and
active participation of farmers through Front
Line Demonstration and on Farm Testing.
As per the mandate of Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, K.V.K. will operate
under the administrative control of State
Agricultural University (SAU) or Central
Institute situated in a particular area. Different
scientists from different disciplines as per the
specific requirement of that particular area are
posted in the Krishi Vigyan Kendra as Training
Associate. Generally there are six categories
of scientists posted in the K.V.K. i.e.
(i) Training Associate (Crop Production) to
look after the experiment on field crops as well
as provide training and advice on different field
crops. (ii) Training Association (Horticulture)
looks after the training and demonstration on
horticultural crops such as vegetables, fruits
and flowers.(iii) Training Associate (Plant
Protection) Provides training and
demonstration on control of different pests and
diseases in different crops. He also imparts
training and advice on diferent types of
pesticides and insecticides, their methods and
time of application. (iv) Training Association
(Animal Science) lookes after over all growth
and management of animal resource of that
particular area. He also imparts training and
advices on broiler farming,dog rearing as well
Krishi Vigyan Kendra : The Light House for
Rural People
Dr. Ashish Kumar Dash
Dr. Monoranjan Mishra
53
Orissa Review * October - 2004
as rabbit rearing etc. (v) Training Associate
(Agricultural Engineering) looks after the use
of different agricultural implements in the field
for different agricultural operations through
training, demonstrations and on farm testing.
(vi) Training Associate (Home Science)
involved in the improvement of skill and
attitude of the farmers and farm women as well
as provides advices and training on kitchen
gardening preparation of nutritional food and
different handicrafts. She also imparts training
regarding the preservation and storage of fruits
and vegetables for rural youths of the adopted
village.
Training Organiser, head of the K. V .K.
family coordinates the work of all scientists
for smooth functioning of the K.V.K. as well
as for the benefit of the rural people of that
particular area. He is also liaisoning with other
line departments for coordination and effective
implementation of different programs of the
K.V.K. in the adopted village. Every K.V.K.
has adopted 4 to 6 economically, culturally and
technologically backward villages situated
within 10-20 Kms radius of the K.V.K. These
villages are not too small or too large. Before
adoption a detailed survey of the village was
conducted to study the socio-economic and
cultural status of that village. Now-a-days
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tool was
used to conduct the survey in which the village
people are actively participated in the process.
The village map was drawn by the help of
different colour by the villagers themselves and
different prominent structures of the village
such as school, temple, river, club etc. were
depicted in that map. These structures will help
the scientists to conduct the survey easily and
smoothly. Basing upon the survey the field crop
maps, animal resource map and other ancillary
maps were prepared for future use. After the
survey work detailed plan of work was
chalked out and depending upon the
requirement different activities were
undertaken in different areas by K.V.K.
scientists.
The objectives of all the activities
undertaken by K.V.K. are :
(a) To demonstrate the new improved
technology to the farmers as well as to the
extension agencies directly in the farmers field
with their active participation.
(b) To identify the important problems of that
area as per the need of the farmers and
prioritization of the identified problems as per
their importance.
(c) To collect feed back from the farmers
and extension agencies and to communicate
these massage to research scientists for
modification of technology.
(d) To impart training on different topics to
different group of the villagers. .
(e) To provide new and important
information to the extension agencies and
NGOs for wider circulation in that locality to
improve their economic condition.
(f) To prepare different extension models
and verify these models in the farmers field
with their participation to create confidence
among them.
To achieve the above mentioned
objectives K.V.K. undertake following types
of activities in the adopted villages :
(1) Farm Advisory Service (2) Training
programme for different categories of people.
(3) Training programme for the extension
functionaries. (4) Front Line Demonstration
(Fill) (5) On Farm Testing (OFT).
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Orissa Review * October - 2004
Farm Advisory Services:
Krishi Vigyan Kendra otherwise known
as Farm Science Center. It provides solution
to any problems related to agriculture and allied
subjects as and when faced by farmers of that
particular locality. Interested farmers /persons
can get proper advices regarding the
establishment of new entrepreneurship on non
traditional sector. The main function of
advisory service center is to provide
continuous and constructive advice along with
sound theory and practical knowledge to the
contact villagers regarding agriculture and its
allied subjects for their cultural and economical
improvement. The objectives of the Farm
Advisory Center are as follows:
(a) To study the socio economic status of
the villagers.
(b) To keep close relationship between
K.V.K. and villagers.
(c) To prepare individual farm model for
uplift of rural people.
(d) To provide training and advice to the
rural people so as to enable them to take part
in the agricultural planning of the village,
blocks as well as district.
(e) Formation of farm club farm center or
village committee for easy transfer of new
information related to agriculture to the
villagers in short time.
Training programme for different categories
of people:
Training is one of the most important
activities of Krishi Vigyan Kendra. Training
is planned and systematic effort to increase the
knowledge, improves the skill and change the
attitude of a person towards a particular
subject. Training need assessment is the first
and foremost factor to be considered before
conducting any training programme. Depending
upon the need and categories of trainees,
K.V.K. imparts mainly following three types
of training:
(a) Training to the practising farmers and
farm women:
Training on different subjects were
conducted by the scientists of the K.V.K. as
per the need of the local farmers of a particular
area as well as the types of trainees and
different audio visual aids are used to increase
the efficiency of the training. As the trainees
are practising farmers and farmwomen, more
emphasis was given on the practical than theory
to improve their skill to change their attitude
and increase their knowledge for that particular
topic.
(b) Training to the Rural Youth:
This type of training was imparted to the
rural youth (Both male and female) mostly those
are left their education in midway i.e. school
dropouts. The main objective of this training
is to provide sufficient knowledge and skill
regarding a new entrepreneurship so that they
can start their own business singly or
collectively and generate some income for their
livelihood. The main thrust areas of this type
of training are mushroom cultivation, bee
keeping, preservation of fruits and vegetables,
broiler farming, goat rearing, tailoring, wool
knitting, hand crafts and exotic vegetable
cultivation etc. for more profit. In this training
more emphasis was given on the practical
aspects and trainees were do the practical
themselves to get more confidence. The
scientists of the K.V.K. provide knowledge
regarding the availability of the raw materials
as well as the marketing of different products
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Orissa Review * October - 2004
in that particular locality for the interested
participants.
(c) Training programme for the extension
functionaries :
In this group mostly government
employees of agriculture along with extension
functionaries of line department and members
of different NGOs operated in that locality are
trained in different aspects. The main objective
of this type of training is to refresh the memory
and up grade the knowledge and skill of the
extension functionaries by providing recent and
new information regarding new techniques as
well as new approach of solving different
problems faced by farmers of that locality. As
the extension functionaries of different
department act like a bridge between the
scientists and villagers, the refinement of the
knowledge is highly essential and quite helpful
for effective and efficient transfer of the
technology.
Front Line demonstration:
Front Line Demonstration (FLD) is the
field demonstration conducted under the close
supervision of the scientists because the
technologies are demonstrated for the first time
by the scientist themselves before being fed
into the main extension system of the state
department of Agriculture in that particular
area. In this method newly released crop
production and protection technologies and its
management practices are adopted in a block
of two to four hectares in the farmers field.
Only critical inputs and training for this
demonstration are provided by Krishi Vigyan
Kendra. In FLD both farmers and extension
functionaries are target audience. From the
FLD, it is possible to generate some data
related to factors contributing to higher yield
and also constraints of production under
various farming situations. Front Line
Demonstration is conducted in a particular area
after thorough discussion and consultation with
the farmers of that locality. Depending upon
the requirement of that area highly efficient new
proven technology with higher potentialities is
selected for this programme. Generally a field
day is observed in the demonstration field when
the crop is at maturity stage and interaction
between the scientists, farmers and extension
functionaries takes place in the field. The crop
is harvested in the presence of the interested
group of farmers so that they can visualize-the
importance of new technology easily and
effectively.
On Farm Testing ( OFT ):
Testing of any improved technology along
with the farmers practice in the farmers field
with active participation of both the scientists
and farmers is known as OFT. In this method
two to three improved varieties or two to three
improved technologies are tested in the same
field so as to compare the results of these
treatments. As per the suggestions of the farmers
as well as local soil and climatic conditions
the improved technology may slightly be
modified by the scientists of K.V.K. to get
maximum return.
All these activities of the K.V.K. are
undertaken as per the suggestion and approval
of the Scientific Advisory Committee. This
committee consists of representative from the
Vice-chancellor of State Agricultural
University or Director of the Institute,
representative from the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, representative of the
District Collector, representatives from
Department of Agriculture, Horticulture,
Animal Husbandary, Sericulture, progressive
male and female farmers, male and female
56
Orissa Review * October - 2004
social workers of that area and Training
Organizer of the concern K.V.K. The Scientific
Advisory Committee held once in a year to
review the work of K.V.K. and provide
suggestions for future plan of work. The future
technical programme of the K.V.K. is prepared
as per the suggestion of the farmers of that
particular area.
Besides these activities each K.V.K. has
got different demonstration units such as
Mushroom unit. Biofertiliser unit,
Vermicompost unit, Broiler farming unit, Bee
keeping unit, Fruit preservation unit etc. for
the lagers. When a person will visit K.V.K., he
will be able to see all the enterprise in the
demonstration unit and he can interact with the
scientists regarding the establishment of his
own enterprise. These units will help the
villager to increase his confidence on a
particular enterprise.
From these discussion it can be
concluded that the scientists of K.V.K. provide
required knowledge, impart training to improve
the skill and attitude of the people towards a
particular subject, provide proper guidance to
solve any problem faced by the people related
to agriculture and allied topics. Krishi Vigyan
Kendra provides inspiration, constructive and
constant advice to the people of that area to
start new entrepreneurship for their livelihood
and show them proper way when need actual
help as the light house help the sailor in the
sea. So we can rightly say that Krishi Vigyan
Kendra is the light house for the rural people.
Dr. Ashish Kumar Dash and Dr. Monoranjan Mishra
are working in the K.V.K., G.Udayagiri in the district
of Kandhamal.
Dr. Damodar Rout, Minister, Culture and Panchayati Raj releasing a poster
on PARAB-2004 at 3rd floor Conference Hall of Secretariat on 5.10.04 in the
presence of Shri Balabhadra Majhi, Minister, Scheduled Tribes and
Scheduled Castes Development (Scheduled Tribes Development).
57
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Sarala Dasa was one of the great scholars of
Oriya literature whose work formed perennial
source of information to the succeeding
generations. It was a perennial spring from
which the later Oriya literature flowed like a
stream without a break. He was the first scholar
who wrote his works in Oriya in 15th century
A.D.
The life of Sarala Dasa is very obscure.
The date of his birth can't be accurately
determined, but he can safely be placed on the
second half of the 15th century A.D. He was
born at Kanakavati Patana is known as
Kanakapura, one of the Sidhikshetras in
Jagatsinghpur District. His early name was
Siddheswar Parida, later he was known as
Sarala Dasa by the boon of Goddess Sarala.1
There is a story, which tells us that
Siddheswar in his boyhood was once
ploughing his father's field and singing so
melodiously that the goddess Sarala stopped
and listened to his song and endowed him with
her power of composing beautiful poems. Such
stories are also similar with the early life of
other Indian poets. Particularly of the great poet
Kali Dasa, who is said to have illiterate in his
early life but he could become a great poet
through the grace of goddess Saraswati.
Sarala Dasa, The Originator of the
Oriya Literature
Debendra Nath Bhoi
Priyadarshini Bakshi
Sarala Dasa belongs to Sudra Caste and
a cultivator by profession. The title 'Dasa'
means a slave or a servant of a particular gods
or goddess.
We have this a long list of poets
preceding and succeeding Sarala Dasa; whose
names end with Dasa e.g. Vatra Dasa,
Markanda Dasa, Sarala Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa,
Balarama Dasa, Yasovanta Dasa etc.2
Saral Dasa was famous for his three
books like -Mahabharata, Vilanka Ramayana
and Chandi Purana. He has also written the
book, Laxmi Narayana Vachanika. The Adi
Parva Mahabharata opens with a long
invocation addressed to the Lord Jagannatha
of Puri, from which it is known that Sarala Dasa
started writing his Mahabharata in the reign of
Kapileswar, otherwise known as Kapilendra,
the famous Gajapati king of Orissa (1435-67
A.D.). He tells us that Maharaja Kapilesvara
with ennumberable offerings and many a salute
was serving this great deity and hereby
destroying the sins of Kali age.
There were reasons for the rise of Oriya
literature in the reign of Kapilendra. In
Gopinathpur stone inscription a verse proves
that Kapilendra was a native of Orissa. After
a centuries a native of Odra-desa or Orisa
58
Orissa Review * October - 2004
ruled its own people, giving them a sense of
pride and self-respect, hopes and aspirations
leading them to battle fields for his extensive
conquests and opening to them a new
geographical horizon. A love for the Oriya
language and literature and culture therefore
is an inevitable consequence of the new format
created by the strong and vigorous rule of
Kapileswar.3
Sarala Dasa followed the main outline
of Sanskrit Mahabharata in writing the Oriya
Mahabharata. He made numerous deviations
and added to it copiously the stories of his own
creation and various other matters known to
him. In the final form Sarala Dasa's
Mahabharata is a new creation analogus to
Kalidasa's Raghuvamsa based on the
Ramayana.
Mahabharata brought to light about the
eighteen parva's like. 1. Adiparva,
2. Sabhaparva, 3. Vanaparva, 4. Virata Parva,
5. Udaya Parva, 6. Vishma Parva, 7. Drona
Parva, 8. Kanna Parva, 9. Slaya Parva,
10. Surtika Parva, 11. Stri Parva, 12. Shanti
Parva, 13. Anusasanika Parva,
14. Asramavasika Prava, 15. Mahaprasthanika
Parva, 16. Asvamedha Parva, 17. Mausala
Parva, 18. Swargarohana Parva.4
The Chandi Purana5 is based on the wellknown
story of Durga killing Mahishasura (the
buffalo headed demon) given in Sanskrit
literature but here also the Oriya poet has
chosen to deviate from the original at several
points. His earliest work Vilanka Ramayana
is a story of the fight between Rama and
Shahasrasira Ravana (thousand headed
Ravana).
Sarala Dasa had no systematic education
from early age. What he achieved through selfeducation
and untiring efforts have all been
attributed to the grace of the goddess Sarala
the deity of the devotion and inspiration. Poetry
was in the blood of Sarala Dasa and it flowed
from his iron stylus as words flow from his
mouth. What he wrote once was final. His
verses are simple, forceful and musical with
no trace of artificiality in them. He had a finer
sense of composition and application of all
colloquial words for his poetical purpose. His
writing was free from Sanskritization.
Earlier Oriya folk songs were orally
popular and were being used in various folk
dances. Such as Ghoda-nacha (Horse Dance).
Dandanacha and Sakhinacha (Puppet Dance).
One metrical peculiarity of these songs is that
both the lines of a verse do not contain an equal
number of letters though the last letters of both
the lines produce the same sound. All the
works of Sarala Dasa are found to have been
composed with this metrical peculiarity and
therefore, the metre use by him can be regarded
as a direct descendant of the metre used in the
folk songs. By the fifteenth century the Oriya
language had assumed almost its modern form
and had become ripe for literary compositions.6
The predominant sentiment in Sarala
Dasa's poem is not love but war. He was also
motivated by a strong religious zeal to compose
religious books in a language intelligible to
all and to make them available to the general
public in Orissa. He tells in no uncertain words
that he composed his poems for the benefit of
"human beings". There are several indications
in his Mahabharata that he served as a soldier
in the army of the Gajapati King of Orissa and
his association with the army brought to him a
variety of experiences. The stories he heard
the battle scenes which he witnessed, the
places that he visited with the company of the
59
Orissa Review * October - 2004
army the historical incidents and names that he
could know all remained stored up in his mind
to be utilized in his writings.7
Sarala Dasa spent his last time at Bila
Sarala but the native place Kanakavati Patana
known as Kanakapura at Tentuliapada with a
religious establishment known as
Munigoswain, which marks as the traditional
spot, where he composes his works. Thus,
Sarala Dasa was really an originator of Oryia
literature. His works inspired the succeeding
generation of writers to make it more popular
among the people.
References :
1. S. Mahanti, Oriya Sahityara Kramabikasha
(Oriya), Cuttack, 1993, PP 22-23.
2. K.C. Panigrahi, History of Orissa, Cuttack,
1995, PP 291. 3) Ibid., PP 288-89
4. Sarala Dasa, Mahabharata (Oriya), Cuttack,
1981, PP 86. - 5) Sarala Dasa, Chandi Purana,
Cuttack, 1981, PP 67.
6. K.C. Panigrahi, Sarala Dash, Makers of Indian
literature serie, Sahitya Ekademi, New Delhi,
1975.
7. K.C. Panigrahi, OP.'CIT, P 292.
Debendra Nath Bhoi and Priyadarshini Bakshi are the
Reasearch Scholars in the P.G. Deptt. of A.I.H.C. &
Archaeology in Utkal University, Vani Vihar,
Bhubaneswar.
Shri Naveen Patnaik, Hon'ble Chief Minister of Orissa going round the newly constructed
library and reading room of the OAS Association at Bhubaneswar on 2.10.2004.
60
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Orissa is exceedingly rich, since ancient times
in exquisite and excellent palmleaf manuscript
expanse of textual and illustrative eminence.
The varied palmleaf manuscripts galore, now
found in the collection of museums, private
institutions and individuals amply testify to the
exuberance and efflorescence of this great
tradition from about 10th Century A.D., as is
evident from the epigraphic reference to Oriya
language and Kutila script found in an
inscribed sculpture of Jaina monk-Kumarasena
discovered from Gandhi-bedha in Balasore
district. They formed the treasure house of
wisdom and knowledge on different aspects
of Orissan history, culture, artistic &
architectural legacy. Because of the easy
availability of palmleaf in abundance in Orissa,
the palmleaf manuscript culture became very
popular through ages. It also becomes easy to
scribe and engrave different subject matters
with an iron stylus. The Oriya writing due to
its round and linear shape, facilitated the
growth and development of palmleaf
manuscript writing and this tradition even
continues till the present days.
Interestingly, the European scholars were
greatly attracted to study the Oriya palmleaf
manuscript collections during the nineteenth
century. Rev J. Long published the first research
article in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal and subsequently scholars like Col.
Palmleaf Manuscript Legacy of Orissa and
National Mission for Manuscripts
Dr. C. B. Patel
Makenji, Sir John Beams, the-then Collector
of Balasore, R. L. Mitra, M. M. Chakravarti,
H. P. Shastri and Prof. Macdonel etc.
contributed significantly to the study and
research of palmleaf manuscript tradition of
Orissa which cast a flood of new light on the
manifold aspects of variegated and glowing
Orissan Culture.
After Orissa became a separate province
in 1936, a series of serendipities and
reconnaissance works were taken up to prepare
a list of palmleaf manuscripts found preserved
under different agencies through the help of
local Pandits and as many as 15 thousand titles
were recorded out of which 11 thousand are
now available in Orissa State Museum.
Education Department, Govt. of Orissa
thereafter, collected a large variety of palmleaf
61
Orissa Review * October - 2004
manuscripts with the initiative of Prof. G. S.
Dash and Prof. N. Banerji with the assistance
of Prachi Samiti under the banner of newly
founded Ravenshaw college Museum.
Scholars like Padmasree Paramananda
Acharya, Purna Chandra Rath and Kedarnath
Mohapatra contributed enormously in their
official and individual capacity to the
enrichment of palmleaf manuscript collection.
When the Ravenshaw College Museum was
shifted to Bhubaneswar during 1947- 48 Sri P.
Acharya the - then Superintendent of Orissa
State Museum and K. N. Mohapatra the - then
curator of Manuscripts opened a separate
section of manuscripts in the Museum. This has
now proliferated into an institution of
international reputation with about 40 thousand
manuscripts comprising 6 sections,
Manuscripts have been classified under 27
subjects namely :
1.Veda, 2.Tantra, 3. Jyotisha,
4.Dharmasastra, 5. Ayurveda, 6. Ganita,
7.Silpasastra, 8. Samgita, 9. Abhidhana,
10.Vyakarana, 11.Sanskrit Purana, 12.Sanskrit
Kavya, 13.Alamkara, 14. Bengali (Sanskrit),
15. Bengali, 16. Devanagari, 17.Oriya Purana,
18. Oriya Kavya, 19. Oriya Prose, 20. Oriya
Historical Literature, 21. Sanskrit Paper
Manuscripts, 22. Oriya Paper Manuscripts,
23. Arabic Manuscripts, 24. Darsana
Manuscripts, 25. Telugu manuscripts,
26. Copied Manuscripts and 27. Illustrated
Manuscripts.
Simultaneously Sambalpur University,
Berhampur University and Utkal University
have opened their manuscript collections. Dr.
N. K. Sahu organised a palmleaf manuscript
section in Sambalpur. This has developed into
a palmleaf manuscript library of Sambalpur
University which has in its collection
manuscripts covering a wide range of subjects.
They are Veda, Grammer, Tantra, Astronomy,
Medicine, Religion, Philosophy, Alankara,
Epics, Puranas etc. Among these the illustrated
palmleaf of Bhagavata has evoked great
interest from the scholars and Indologists of
India and abroad as well. Berhampur
University has also a number of rare collection
of manuscripts including that of renowned poet
Upendra Bhanja. Many private organisations
like Raghunandan Library at Puri,
Banchhanidhi Library, Nayagarh, Saintala
College, District Bolangir and Veshja Patel
College of Duduka, Sundargarh, Titilagarh
College, Titilagarh, individual collection of Sri
Jitamitra Singh Deo, Khariar, Dileswar Patel
of Kantapali, Dist. Jharsuguda, Dr. M. K.
Misra of Kalahandi and Sri D.Pattnaik of
Bhubaneswar have housed different varieties
of palmleaf manuscripts.
In the arena of Indian philosophy, Oriya
palmleaf manuscript writers have carved out
a permanent nich for themselves. Since the
advent of Buddhism, philosophers like
Dharmakirti, Kavidindima, Jivadevacharya,
Acharya Narsimha Vajpeyi, Gaudiya
philosopher Baldev Vidyabhusan, Indrabhuti,
Laxmikara etc. have contributed greatly in this
field of study. Oriya dictionaries that were
composed in Orissa such as Trikanda Sesha
and Haravali of Purusottama Dev and Medini
Kosha of Medini Kara have received wide
recognition in India since early medieval times.
The Vedic manuscript collection of
Orissa State Museum are not that large as
because people are orthodox in nature and
reluctant to part with their traditional
individual collections because till date people
of Orissa perform Vedic rites and rituals as
per the diction of Vedic manuscripts. Therefore,
unlike Bengal, Vedic palmleaf manuscripts are
found in plenty in almost every Oriya house.
Some manuscripts of Yajurveda and
Atharvaveda have been brought from Midnapur
district of West Bengal, Characters of these
manuscripts are Oriya in content and nature
62
Orissa Review * October - 2004
which hints that originally they had been
written by Oriya pandits and script writers. It
is also a known fact that Midnapur region was
part of Orissa till ancient times.
M. M. Shastri has mentioned the names
of great Pandits like Jalesvara Misra, Bhaskara
Parivrajaka and Haladhara who wrote
valuable commentaries on the Vedic works.
Late Pandit D. N. Bhattacharya, an erudite
scholar of Bengal was fortuante to get a
complete manuscript of the Paippalada Sakha
of the Atharva Veda from Jagannathpur in the
District of Puri which was not available in any
other part of India. Some kandas of this unique
Vedic work have been published so far. There
are a number of these manuscripts in our
collection containing different archas
(chapters). There are three manuscripts
containing Sayana’s Bhasya on the
Kanvasamhita of which one is complete in
twentyone chapters of its second part of
Bhasya. Our collection is not enriched by the
acquisition of the manuscripts of different
Brahmanas of the Yajurveda Upanisads,
Tapinis and Angirasakalpa of the
Atharavaveda, some of which are as yet
unknown to the scholars. Orissa was a popular
centre of Tantric cult from 6th century A.D.
Baladeva Rath and Gaurahari Parichha etc.
contributed enormously to the Oriya literary
exuberance of this epoch. Their activities,
inspired a number of followers to compose
more creative compositions in the field of art
and literature. They are Pitambar Deva’s
Akhila Ratha Chintamani, Kesava Ratha’s
Ananga Ragini, Anuraga kalpalata of
Shyamasundar Deva, Haravati of Ramachndra
Pattnaik, Anuragavati of Padmanabha etc. In
addition to these we find a number of lesser
known writers like Madhavi Dasi, Rani Mohan
Kumari, Rani Kshirod Mali, Krishnapriya
Jema, Sivapriya Dei, Kalpalata Jema, Madhuri
Dasi, Achuta Jema and host of others. We find
a good number of palmleaf manuscripts of
historical prose and translation works. Oriya
scholars have also contributed to Bengali and
Hindi manuscript composition. Among the
Bengali works to have been composed by
Oriya poets are Krishnalila of Ramachandra
Pattanaik, Manasamangal of Dwarika Dasa,
Govardhan Utsava of Gourachandra Parichha,
Basanta Rasa of Pindika Srichandan, Dolarasa
of Natabar Dasa, Navanuraga of
Shyamabandhu Pattnaik, Ganga Mahatmya of
Jagannath Dasa. In Hindi we find literary
works Brajaboli gita of Ramananda Patnaik,
Jayachandrika and Kosalananda of Prahallad
Dube, Gundicha Vije of Brajanath and poems
of many other poets. Besides we also find
palmleaf manuscripts written in Telugu, Tamili,
Sarada, Newari, Persian and Urdu. The
manuscript gallery of Orissa State Museum is
now adorned with such rare palmleaf
manuscripts collection.
Sarala Dasa, the writer of Mahabharat
in Oriya has contributed a number of works of
eminence like Saptakanda Ramayana, Chandi
Purana, Valmiki Ramayana, Malasri Janana
and Mahalaxmi Vrata etc. These mauscripts
are now found in the collection of State
Museum. He established Oriya as a rich
language in the 15th century A.D..
Mahabharata of Krishna Singh, Purusottam
Dasa, Jagannath Das and Kapileswar Nanda
are also some of the prize collections of the
manuscript section. Mahabharata and
Ramayana became very popular in Orissa as
they were written in Oriya languages and
script due to the initiative of Balaram Dasa,
Maheswar Dasa, Kirshna Chandra Rajendra,
Kesava Tripathi and Purusottam Dasa. The
Madala Panji, the temple chronicle of Puri
written in palmleaf is a storehouse of
knowledge which needs a thorough and
separate study.
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Orissa Review * October - 2004
Bhagavata Purana was translated by
Jagannath Das and has become the Bible of
Oriya people. He completed this work in the
Jagannath temple before the advent of Sree
Chaitanya in Puri. His mastery over Sanskrit
literature enabled him to translate this work
into a very lucid and simple style. We have
several copies of this masterly work in our
collection. The works Bhagavata Lahari,
Harivamsa, Padmapurana by Achyutananda
and the works of Mahadeva Dasa, Haladhara
Dasa, Nilambara Dasa, Pitambara Dasa are
also a few unique acquisition of the section.
Few poetic compositions have historical value
like Jagannath Charitamruta, Chaitanya
Charitamruta and Bhaktamala, Copies of
Veda, Tantra, Dharmashastra, Jyotisha,
Vyakarana, Kavya, Alankara etc. have
enriched the manuscript legacy of Orissa. They
have been written in Sanskrit language with
provincial Oriya script. A few notable works
in these fields are mentioned below for
reference of researchers and tourists.
1. Vedartha Praveshatika or Sayana Bhashya
of Yajurveda, 2. Paippalada Samhita of
Atharvaveda, 3. Brahmanas according to
Kanva Sakha or Yajurveda, 4. Jnanavalli
Tantra, 5. Durga Janana Dipika,
6. Bhubaneswari Prakasa, 7. Tarini
Kulasudha Tarangini, 8.Bhasvati, 9. Kritya
Kaumudi, 10. Vaisvanaresti Paddhati,
11.Vidyakara Padhati, 12. Nityacharadipa,
13. Vaijalakarika, 14. Prakriyasara,
15. Sarasidhanta Samagraha,
16. Anyopadesasataka,17. Abdaduta,
18. Gitagovinda, 19. Gundicha Champu,
20. Bhakti Bhagavatamahakavyam,
21. Bharatamrita Mahakavyam,
22. Manimala Natika, 23. Rukmini Parinaya,
24. Raghavayadaviyamahakavya, 25. Kavya
Prakasa Vivarana, 26. Sahityabhusana,
27. Gita prakasa, 28. Sangitanarayana,
29. Sangitakalpalata.
Charles Fabri remarks that those who
carved the masterpieces of sculpture in the 9th,
10th and 11th century A.D. must have been also
able to carve lovely pictures on thier palmleaf
manuscripts. Unfortunately we do not find any
specimen prior to the 15th century A.D. As
palmleaf manuscripts are perishable, the
earlier paintings and engravings must have
been obliterated. However, we find lively
specimen from 15th century A.D. onwards as
reported by Prof. Ganguly. Thus the history of
the incised drawings on palmleaf manuscripts
goes back to a definite datum line. Difference
between stylus incised line drawings and
coloured paintings is enormours. They seem
to belong to two worlds even if one recognizes
the elements of hieratic drawings, the readymade
formula for eyes, hands, lips etc. of the
line drawings being re-employed as a basis
for paintings. He has referred to the live leaves
of a palm leaf manuscript by one Lokanath Dasa
now found in the Raghunandan Library, Puri.
They are illustrations of Ushaparinaya text and
their date has been assigned to the 18th century.
In the painting, women don’t put on blouses
except the end of the saree draped over their
breast. There is one complete naked woman in
leaf-4 from the top left side and she is draped
under an element whom she appears to
embrace. Such erotic illustrations we find in
other private collections also. In
Ushaparinaya compositions, male figures are
found wearing typical Mughul tang paijama.
i.e. tight fitting leggings. In another illustrations
we find four palmleaves from a Ramayana
manuscript in the collection of Sadasiva Rath
Sharma. All the men were found wearing tight
Mughul trousers and belted coats, and Marathis
turbans. The females wear blouses and saree.
Sita seems to have put on a ghaghara, choli,
orni that is skirt, blouse and handkerchief. The
Orissa State Museum has obtained a good
collection of such illustrated manuscripts some
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Orissa Review * October - 2004
of which are in display. The subjects are mostly
derived from Ramayana, Mahabharata and
Bhagabata Purana. In many cases temple
styles, gods and godlings are also found. The
most interesting is one Kandarpa Ratha
illustrated over a bunch of palmleaves cut to
size and stiched together horizontally in a
rectangular shape. Enchanting and impressive
maidens are intricately arranged to form the
chariot with Radha & Krishna in embrace
placed at this centre. Another most important
treasure of the section is the Gita Govinda.
The plates are plam leaves size and every plate
contains about 17 lines on each side.
We also find musical texts in palmleaf
manuscript. The Oriya poets have
experimented the use of music in a traditional
Sanskrit lyric. This indicates that music was
prevalent in the country prior to Jayadeva.
From the style of collection of this text, it is
believed that Southern Orissa and Puri were
main centres of this musical culture where
regular musical performance alongwith textual
discussions were being held. From the days of
Bharatmuni, Orissa had a special style of music.
The Natya Shastra of Bharat has given special
importance to the Udra style of music. It is an
irony that old Sanskrit scripts dealing with
music are not available in Orissa. Such texts
generally belong to late medieval times. They
include Samgita Kaumodi, Gitaprakash,
Samgita Kalpalata, Samgita Narayana and
Natyamanorama etc.
Orissa, the land of temples and shrines
has also received the prolific impress of
palmleaf manuscript art diction. However, few
texts are now available among which
Bhuvanpradipa occupies a conspicuous
position. N. K. Bose refers to some of the
palmleaf manuscripts and says that they are
writtent with an iron stylus. In the Bhuvanapradipa
we find description of temples, altars,
and similar structure. There is no reference to
secular architecture. Hence the word
Bhubanapradipa may be taken to mean the
lamp which sheds light on the characteristics
of the abode of the Gods. We do not find names
of artists who constructed the colossal temples
of Bhubaneswar, Puri and Knoark but in the
Bhuvanapradipa there is reference to Pingla,
the artist and Ahidhar the carpenter, along with
information regarding parting dues of each
functionary at the end of the ceremony of the
construction of the temple, which reads that
the Brahmin who will perform Japa will get
his dues equivalent to the astrologer. Many
manuscripts are found uncared in the villages
which are a in state of decay and destruction.
They are the depository of our cultural heritage
and should be restored by popular drive
through various institutions and individuals
dedicated to the cause of saving the extinct
palmleaf manuscript heritage of Orissa.
The precious palmleaf manuscripts of the
Museum deserve special mention. It is
ascertained from records that 37,273
manuscripts have been collected out of which
fifty two manuscripts have been published. Ten
descriptive catalogues of manuscripts, five
alphabetical catalogues and one alphabetical
catalogue of authors have been made. The
manuscript section comprises twenty seven
sections such as Veda, Tantra, Darsana,
Historical records, Silpa Sastra, Abhidhana,
Ayurveda etc. It has Palmleaf, Bamboo leaf,
Handmade paper, Old paper, Ivory
manuscripts, Bhurja bark, Manuscript, Kumbhi
bark manuscripts, Garland shaped, Fan
shaped, Fish shaped, Sword shaped, Rat and
Parrot shaped varieties of manuscripts and
different types of stylus are displayed in the
section.
Three hundred sixty six illustrated
manuscripts of coloured and monochrome
variety are found. Important variety such as
manuscripts of Gita Govinda of Kali Charan
65
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Pattnaik, the Usha harana, Ushavilasa etc. and
different varieties of cover design of palmleaf
manuscripts are in the collection. As many as
seven thousand manuscripts have been
conserved scientifically and manually by way
of dry and wet cleaning filling of holes made
by worms, use of preservative chemicals and
reinking of invisible writing of manuscripts.
A microfilming unit is functioning in this section
since 1985-86 with the donation of Ford
Foundation. One thousand seven hundred ninety
eight palmleaf manuscripts have been
microfilmed up to date. It is worth mentioning
that even today palmleaf is used for recording
horoscope (Jataka) of new born babies. For
invitation to God, it is also used. In 15th century
A.D. the palmleaf tradition has reached
pinnacle of excellence with wide distribution.
Etching and painting on palmleaf is a
very ancient art diction of Orissa. Origin of
this art form marked the beginning of
dissemination of written version. It is,
therefore, part of our literary tradition. With
the magnificence of Orissan rulers, illustrated
manuscripts reached climax of excellence
vindicating the ancient nomenclature of Utkal
i.e. “land of art of exuberance and
efflorescence’. Even to this day, the glorious
tradition thrives in the work of handicraft
artisans of Orissa. The art form comprises
inscribed letters and paintings of various
designs. Such a piece of work is a befitting
item for presentation as memento or Souvenir.
It is heartning that Government of India
have recently launched National Mission for
Manuscripts for documentation preservation
and dissemination of the manuscript heritage
of the country. In Orissa in this Project uptill
now more than eighty thousand manuscripts
have been documented and disseminated in
addition to the 40,000 collection of Orissa
State Museum.
The National Mission for Manuscripts
seeks to develop a holistic approach in
locating, documenting, protecting and making
accessible the significant information of the
manuscript heritage of india. This challenging
task is carried out through wide networking
with institutions and scholars across the
country and abroad who have manuscript
holdings and interest in their preserves. The
NMM has identified some of the most
prominent institutions across the country with
considerable manuscript holdings and has
designated them as Manuscript Resource
Centre (MRC). Indira Gandhi National Centre
for Arts, New Delhi has been identified as the
National Nodal Agency and Orissa State
Museum, Bhubaneswar has been designated as
the MRC to carry out the survey and listing
work of manuscripts in Orissa. Dr. C. B. Patel,
Superintendent of Orissa State Museum has
been designated as Project Co-ordinator.
Orissa Art Conservation Centre, Orissa State
Museum has been identified as the Manuscript
Conservation Centre for Orissa. Keeping in
view the above, MRC/OSM is organizing
different Awareness Campaigns, Workshops to
popularise the mission work and to document
manuscripts. Donation from individual &
institution are accepted free of cost for
organisation of Central Manuscript Library by
NMM at IGNCA, New Delhi. An extensive
five days sample survey of palmleaf
manuscripts in all the thirty districts of Orissa
is already on the anvil. It is hoped, on
completion, the National project will open
many new avenues of exuberant Orissan
palmleaf tradition, idiom and diction.
Dr. C.B. Patel is presently working as the
Superintendent of Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar.
66
Orissa Review * October - 2004
We find the traces of the worship of goddess
Durga in her Mahisasuramardini aspect as
early as the sixth century
A.D. This is evident from
the discovery of the ruins of
a collapsed brick temple
containing a two-handed
Mahisasuramardini Durga
image in the Alidha posture
in the Garbhagriha and
having an inscription on the
pedestal in the box-headed
Brahmi alphabets of the
sixth century mentioning
goddess Mahesvari. The
temple was unearthed by the
noted historian, late Prof.
N.K. Sahu, in 1983, during
excavation in the Maraguda
valley of the Nuapada
district. A Sakta Math
(Monastery), said to be the earliest of its kind
was also unearthed near this temple during this
excavation.1 The discovery of the two-handed
Mahisasuramardini Durga image in the
Garbhagriha of the Maraguda temple ruins as
well as the Sakta monastery testify to the
existence of the Mahesvari cult as early as the
sixth century A.D.
We find another two-handed Durga image
at Dharapgarh village of Balangir district,
which can be dated to the same period. The
textual references to the
goddess with two arms is
quite rare, though
S u p r a b h e d a g a m a ,
Purvakarmagama and
Uttarakarmagama describe
Durga as having two hands.2
R. Chanda has suggested that
the two-armed figures of the
goddess were confined to the
pre-Gupta period.3 But as the
Brahmanisation process
seems to have started in
western part of Orissa only
after the subjugation of this
area by the Gupta monarch
Samudragupta during his
military expedition to the
Daksinapatha in the middle of the fourth
century A.D., both the two-handed Durga
images of Western Orissa can be taken to be of
the post-Gupta period. Another unique image
of two-handed Durga, sitting on Her mount lion
holding two swords in both Her up-raised
hands is found fitted in a niche of the exterior
wall of the Bahari Gopalji Temple at Sonepur,
situated in front of the destroyed palace of the
Durga Worship in Upper
Mahanadi Valley
Sasanka S. Panda
Goddess Durga, Banei
Goddess Durga, Lalei, Sundargarh District
67
Orissa Review * October - 2004
erstwhile feudal
ruler of Sonepur
Ex-Princely State.
Four-handed Durga
images are found at
Belkhandi and
carved on a
monolithic rocky
escarpment at
Ranipur Jharial
alongwith figured
panel of
Saptamatrka, Uma-
Mahesvara and
standing Ganesa. Noted historian Dr. J.K. Sahu
takes the four-handed Durga images to be of
the seventh century.4 Six-handed Durga images
are found at Belkhandi, Gandharadi and in the
Parsvadevata niche of the Ramesvara Siva
temple at Sonepur, as central deity in the Durga
temple at Bausuni and enshrined as
Vindhyavasini Durga at Narsinghnath. The sixhanded
Durga images can be taken to be of the
eighth/ninth century when the Bhanjas and
other local dynasties were ruling this region.
The worship of the Mother Goddess or
the female principle can be traced in India as
in other regions of the world to the most ancient
period. In India the worship of Mother Goddess
has been traced in the archaeological findings
from Indus Valley. An oblong terracotta seal
from Harappa depicts a nude female figure
upside down with her legs wide apart, and with
a plant issuing from her womb.5 Marshall has
further mentioned that such figurines have been
found in various regions situated in a wide belt
of the ancient world from the Indus to the Nile.
He is of the opinion that they are 'effigies of
the great Mother Goddess.' Such depiction of
the goddess with the similar position, but with
a lotus issuing from her neck instead of from
her womb has been found on a terracotta
sealing of the Gupta period (circa 4th-5th
century A.D.)6 Ringstones and discs found from
sites of the Maurya and Sunga periods (300-
200 B.C.) were probably associated with the
cult of Mother Goddess symbolising the Yoni.
Ringstones, popularly known as Pandka
Pathar is found in many places of
archaeological importance in the rural area of
the upper Mahanadi valley. One carved Yoni
has been discovered during digging of the spill
way of the Jonk Dam at Patora in the Maraguda
velley in 1982, which is in the private
possession of the noted historian Jitamitra
Prasad Singhdeo of Khariar. In the meantime
four more stone Yonis have been found in
places like Dangrital, Chuipain, Soseng and
Mundapada village, all in the Nuapada
district.7
The Mother Earth in the shape of Yoni,
the female organ of generation, in the opinion
of the learned scholar O.A. Wall, still very
widely worshipped in the Asiatic religions, and
the worshipper of Yoni are called Yonicitas.8
Yoni is worshipped
as goddess
Duarseni at
Patalganga in
Nuapada district
and at Sindhekela
in Balangir district
in shrines built for
the goddess by the
local populace.
Even much
before the Vedic
period or even the
time when the
Indus Valley
c i v i l i s a t i o n
Ten-handed Durga,
(Goddess Kusangei)
Goddess Durga,
Vaidyanath, District Sonepur
68
Orissa Review * October - 2004
flourished, Yoni, the origin of the mankind and
other living world, was worshipped in the
rock-shelters by the pre-historic cave-dwellers
of the upper Mahanadi valley.
Learned scholar Dr. Pradeep K. Behera
while doing exploration work in the dense
mountain ranges of Hemgir belt of Sundargarh
district in 1987-88 encountered hundreds of
small and large rock shelters, out of which six
yielded evidence of pre-historic occupation
and artistic activities. In two of those rock
shelters out of the six discovered by Prof.
Behera, peculiar triangular engravings were
found, which have been identified by him as
stylised depiction of female genital organs
(Yoni). Dr Behera is of the opinion that prehistoric
people were somehow connected with
the process of procreation among the human
beings, which has been subsequently referred
in the religious literatures as fertility cult.9 In
Western Europe also we get evidences of the
prevalence of the stylised of Mother of Venus10
in the Upper Palaeilithic and subsequent prehistoric
cultures.1 1
The Fertility Cult or the worship of the
Mother in the child-delivering postures has
been emphasised in the Lajjyagouri or the Aditi
Uttanapada images found all over eastern,
w e s t e r n ,
southern and
central India.
Two such
i m a g e s
carved on
s t o n e
p l a q u e s ,
d e p i c t i n g
Lajjyagouri
has been
discovered in the Nuapada district. One was
discovered by the learned scholar J.P. Singh
Deo in the Kotipadar village, situated at a
distance of 10 kms from Khariar and the other
one was found during digging of the plinth of
the Panchayat College Building at Komna.
In this images, the goddess is depicted
as headless and instead of head, a full-blown
lotus is issuing from the neck. This goddess
has been identified with Aditi Uttanapada by
Stella Kramrisch.1 2
H.D. Sankalia has identified her with
Lajjyagouri. 13 The prominent exhibition of
vulva in this images emphasize the Yoni type
of the fertility figurines.14 The sprouting of
vegetation or lotus from her throat, thereby
forming her head, allure scholars to identify
her with goddess Sakambari.1 5
In Parvati legend, her sexual aspect,
nourishing nature and headless figure is meet
with in her Sakambari aspect. In the Laksmi
Tantra we find mention of the blue coloured
goddess Sakambari who was produced from
the body of Parvati during the fourteenth cycle
of Vaivasvata Manvantara.16
Learned scholar Dr. Baba Mishra has
rightly pointed out that the evolution of Durga-
Parvati and Sri Laksmi cults have the same
cardinal traits like headlessness, amorous
Two-handed Goddess Durga,
Sarsara, District Sundargarh
Rock-cut figures of Four-handed Durga and Ganesh,
Ranipur Jharial, District Balangir
69
Orissa Review * October - 2004
aspect and
fertility /
n o u r i s h m e n t
features.1 7
Therefore in the
B r a h m a n i c a l
culture, although
Durga-Parvati
and Sri Laksmi
appear to be
different, yet, they
are considered as
one. They both as
the manifestation
of a single
Universal Mother
Goddess has been mentioned in the Durgastotra
of Mahabharata18 at least since the later Vedic
period. In a Gupta coin, Laksmi has been
depicted as seated on a lion, the vehicle of
goddess Durga.19
In this context the story of Renuka, the
wife of sage Jamadagni can be cited. She is
worshipped as goddess Matangi, Yellama and
Prthvi etc. for procuring offspring by barren
women even today.20
In this context it is important to be noted
that during the Baliyatra at Sonepur, religious
rituals of esoteric nature are performed during
Dussehra in the Khaulgad, (most probably
symbolising Yoni or vulva), in a place called
Renukapitha, near the Suresvari temple.
The nourishing mother aspect of mother
goddess Parvati is emphasised on an unique
image of mother-son (Parvati and her son
Karttikeya), fitted to the northern Parsvadevata
niche of Dhavalesvara temple at Mohangiri in
Kalahandi district. It is the standing figure of a
heavy-breasted female wearing a flat Mukuta,
Makara-kundala in both ears and a broad
neck-lace. This lady is calm and while her
right-hand is in Abhaya-mudra, the left hand
is put around the shoulder of a youth whose
mouth is near her left breast. This youth is
holding a Kartri in his left-hand. The ladyfigure
is wearing long cloth hanging from waist
below up to her feet while the youth is wearing
cloth from weist upto knee-portion and
Uttariya hanging from their shoulders in both
cases. It seems to be the mother-son figure of
Parvati and Karttikeya.
The association of vegetation with the
goddess has been described in her Sakambari
aspect in the Markandeya Purana.21 This
concept is given much emphasis even during
the present time, in the Navapatrika ceremony
of the autumnal Durga worship, associating nine
plants. 'She is the mother par excellence
sustaining her children, the men and animals
of the universe, with food produced from her
body.'22
Although we donot find mention of
goddess Durga in the Rg Veda, Her name
occurred for
the first time
as Ambika in
the Taittiriya
Aranyaka as
the consort of
Rudra.23 She
has been
mentioned as
D u r g a
Vairocani,
K a t y a y a n i
a n d
Kanyakumari
in the same
work also.2 4 Saumya Durga, Bausuni, District Baud
Eight-handed Durga,
Rampur (Patnagarh)
70
Orissa Review * October - 2004
The names of
the Supreme
Goddess as
B h a d r a k a l i ,
Bhavani and Durga
etc. are mentioned
in the later Vedic
texts like the
Sankhyayana and
H i r a n y a k e s i n
Grhyasutras, and
also in the
T a i t t i r i y a
Aranyaka. The two Durgastotras of the
Mahabharata25 and the Aryastava in the
Supplement of Mahabharata have vividly
outlined the constituent elements underlying the
development of the Sakti Cult.
The Devimahatmya Section of the
Markandeya Purana is the most authoritative
text, which contains Devistutis elaborately
presenting various multi-farious strands that
contributed to the formation of the concept of
the composite Mother Goddess Durga. The last
couplet of the Narayani-stuti26 describes the
glory of the Great Goddess, who will so often
incarnate herself to kill the Danavas. The Stuti
express the ideas of the divine power and
energy centering around the Supreme Mother
Goddess Durga, the central deity of the Sakti
cult. In the 82nd Chapter of the Markandeya
Purana we get vivid description about the
Great Goddess, who emerged as the
accumulated fury of the Great Gods Brahma,
Visnu and Siva (the Creater, the Preserver and
the Destroyer of the Universe) and endowed
with all the accumulated power of many other
major and minor gods of the Hindu Pantheon.
Then she set herself in the war path to the kill
the demon king Mahisasura and his retinue.2 7
She is taken as the most powerful Shakta
Tantric goddess, revered by all sections of
people. 'Durga in her perfect nature represents
a consolidated idea of different aspects of truth
as divine power. She is described as the most
powerful martial goddess, equipped with the
sharpest weapons and making terrifying sound
and as the omnipresent, omni scient and
omnipotent creater, preserver and destroyer of
the Universe.2 8
In the upper Mahanadi valley, mention
about the worship of the Mother Goddess in
the form of Stambhesvari is found in the
Teresingha copper-plate grant of king
Tustikara,29 who was ruling from
Tarabhramaraka in the 5th century A.D. He
was a devout worshipper at the feet of
Stambhesvari (the Goddess of Pillar or Post)
- 'Stambhesvari Padabhakta.' Stambhesvari
worship also flourished in the later period and
was such a popular cult among the local
populace that to appease their subjects, who
were predominantly tribals, the later ruling
family like that of the Sulkis (circa 700-900
A.D.) of Kodalaka Mandala, corresponding to
the present Dhenkanal-Angul-Talcher region,
made goddess
Stambhesvari their
tutelary deity, the
Istadevi.3 0
B . C .
Majumdar has
rightly pointed out
that Stambhesvari
was an aboriginal
g o d d e s s
worshipped by the
non-Aryan tribes
of the hinterland of
Orissa and in
course of time she
Goddess Durga,
Kumari Temple, Banei
Two-handed Durga,
Maraguda, District Nuapada
71
Orissa Review * October - 2004
was like many
other tribal
deities given a
place in the
Hindu pantheon.31
D e v i
Stambhesvari,
"The Goddess of
the Post or Pillar"
till the present
day is widely
worshipped in the
hilly tracts of the
u n d i v i d e d
S a m b a l p u r ,
B a l a n g i r ,
P h u l b a n i ,
K a l a h a n d i ,
Dhenkanal and
Ganjam disricts of Orissa in the form of a post
or pillar of wood or stone. It might have been
worshipped either in this form or in the form
of a figure carved on pillar in the early days
also. Learned scholar J.P. Singh Deo has taken
the four-handed Devi figure holding a sword
and a club in her right hands and a shield and a
severed human head in her left hands, carved
out in the top-portion of a ten-feet high cutrock
pillar found at Dumerbahal village of
Nuapada district to be the earliest image of
goddess Stambhesvari and further putforth his
opinion of this deity being Hinduized from
Stambhesvari to Samalesvari.3 2
This goddess Samalesvari, otherwise
known as Samalei became the family deity of
Raja Balaram Deva, the first Chauhan king of
Sambalpur line, who carved out an independent
kingdom out of the Balangir-Patna state
sometime in the sixteenth century and even built
a temple at Sambalpur where the goddess is
enshrined. Most probably Balarama Deva by
accepting Samalei, the goddess of tribals of
the Sambalpur region as his family deity tried
to win over his subjects.33 The image of
Samalei, enshrined in the Samalei temple at
Sambalpur is certainly a deity of tribal origin
as it does not conform to any of the icons of
the Hindu pantheon iconogrpahically. Such
icons are enshrined in all three places like
Sambalpur, Barpali and Patnagarh in the
Samalei temples. The temple of Samalei at
Sambalpur, the earliest of these three, is said
to have been built by Balaram Deva (Circa
1575 A.D.), while that of Barpali was built by
Zamindar Vikram Singh in around 1690 A.D.34
Although the Chauhans of Sambalpur
accepted Samalei as their tutelary deity, the
early Chauhans of this line continued the
worship of their tutelary deity, Patanesvari at
Patnagarh in the
Balangir district,
the capital of their
Balangir-Patna
kingdom. For the
worship of
g o d d e s s
P a t a n e s v a r i ,
which is actually
an image of tena
r m e d
Mahisasuramardini
Durga, Ramai
Deva, the founder
ruler of the
Chauhan kingdom
of Balangir-Patna
sometime in the
later part of the
fourteenth century,
built a temple at
Patnagarh, the
Goddess Durga, Banei
Goddess Durga,
Somesvar Temple, Sambalpur
72
Orissa Review * October - 2004
capital of his
kingdom.3 5
In their copperplate
grants, the
Bhanja kings of
K h i n j a l i
Mandala, and the
Tungas of
Y a m a g a r t t a
Mandala have
also mentioned
themselves as the
d e v o u t
worshippers of
g o d d e s s
Stambhesvari.
The Bhanja king
of Khinjali Mandala, Ranabhanja who ruled
Baud - Sonepur region for long 58 years some
time in between 790-850 A.D. has mentioned
in his copper-plate grants that he was blessed
by goddess Stambhesvari (Stambhesvari
Lavdha Vara Prasada). As mentioned above,
a Mahisasuramardini Durga image was
discovered by late Prof. N.K. Sahu, the-then
Advisor in Archaeology to Government of
Orissa in June 1983 during excavation of a
mound in the Maraguda valley of Nuapada
district, on the pedestal of which is a stone
inscription deciphered as 'Mahesvari
Bhaveidam'(From This Grows Mahesvari) by
learned epigraphist late Dr. Satya Narayan
Rajaguru.36 Dr. Rajaguru has further stated
through his correspondence with this researcher
that it is the Mahesvari aspect of goddess Durga.
He has dated the inscription to the 6th century
A.D. palaeographically.
Another epigraphical reference to Durga
worship is found in the Jatesingha-Dungri
plates of the Somavamsi king Mahasivagupta
Yayati-II Chandihara, in which it has been
mentioned that goddess Bhagavati Sri
Panchambari Bhadrambika was enshrined at
Pattana Suvarnapura, the present-day
Sonepur.3 7
The temple ruins at Sarsara in the
Sundargarh district is of considerable
importance, due to the two-handed Durga image
found here which can be dated to the 6th-7th
century A.D. In this image, the demon Mahisa
is depicted in a complete buffalo form, but very
peculiarly holding a sword in its proper right
foreleg which is designed like a hand. The
goddess is standing in Dvibhanga posture,
putting her proper left hand on the head of the
buffalo and pressing its head which is looking
up. In the proper right hand Devi is holding a
long Sula piercing it on the neck of the demon.
Her Vahana lion is seen in the right side of the
pedestal near her proper left foot. It is an
unique image of goddess Durga, but
unfortunately the head is missing.
A fourhanded
Durga
image in
profile is
worshipped
by the
villagers of
Ranipur in
B a l a n g i r
district. This
sculpture is
kept under a
tree near the
c o l l a p s e d
p i l l a r e d
Jagamohana
of a Siva
temple to the
Goddess Durga, Belsara Gad
Goddess Parvati and Kartikeya,
Mohangiri, District Kalahandi
73
Orissa Review * October - 2004
west of the village. As the bottom portion of
this sculpture is buried underneath the earth,
Her Vahana lion is not visible. The goddess is
wearing Hara, Aksamala on her wrists, arms
and waist-portion and anklets on her feet. Both
her lower hands are placed on the knee-portion
of her left leg, which is raised and placed on
the chest of the demon, Mahisasura. A snake
(Sarpa) is attacking the demon from the back
portion of his head. This Sarpa is most
probably hold by Devi in her
upper left hand, which is
broken. The upper right hand
is raised, but the object in it is
not clear. The peculiarity of
this sculpture of
Mahisamardini Durga is that
the Trisula (long trident) is not
there in the hands of the
goddess.
Another four-handed
Durga in her
Mahisasuramardini aspect is
enshrined in a separate shrine
to the north of the brick built
Jagamohana of the
Kosalesvara temple at
Vaidyanath in Sonepur district.
In her up-raised proper right
hand is a Khadga, while in the lower left hand
is a Dhanu. She is holding a long trident in her
upper left hand which is pierced into the month
of the demon. In her lower right hand she is
holding the tail of her Vahana the lion. The
Jatabhara adorning her head is specifically
suggesting the Panduvamsi feature, i.e. of the
7th-8th century A.D.
In the temple enshrining Kevala
Narasimha at Podagad in Nawarangpur
district, four images; two of Durga, one of Uma
Mahesvara and one of four-handed Ganesa are
worshipped by people. Among two Durga
images, one is four-handed, while the other one
is six-handed. In both cases Durga is in the
conventional Alidha posture of an archer. The
four-handed image is of the goddess in her
Mahisamardini aspect, as the demon is
depicted in the buffalo form. Durga is lifting
the entire body of the animal by holding its tail
in her lower left hand, and piercing the long
Sula (trident) by her lower
right hand deep into the neck
of the buffalo. Objects in her
upper left and right hands are
Pasa (Noose) and Gada
(Staff) respectively. Her hair
is forming a Jatabhara on her
head. Patrakundalas are in
her ears and a Hara is around
her neck. This image is of the
breadth of around eight inches
and height of fifteen inches. It
can be dated to the fifth
century A.D. iconogrphically,
because four-handed image of
Durga is a quite earlier
representation of the goddess
in the sculptural art of India.
Another image of Durga kept
inside this temple is a sixhanded
one and of the same dimension. In her
left upper and middle hands are spear and Sakti
respectively, while in her lower left hand she
is touching the tail of the Mahisa(buffalo). In
her right lower hand is a Sula which she is
piercing into the neck of the Mahisa. In her
upper right hand is a Sarpa. A Karanda
Mukuta is adorning the head of the goddess.
She is also wearing Patrakundalas in both her
ears and a Hara around her neck. Garment is
flowing between both her legs. In the top-most
Fourteen-handed Saumya Durga,
Khambesvari Temple, Sonepur
74
Orissa Review * October - 2004
corners of the stone-slab in both left and right
sides, front-faced Vidyadharas (male and
female) with garlands in hands are carved,
which depiction assign a slightly later date,
i.e. Circa 8th century A.D. to this image,
because by the 8th century A.D. flying
Vidyadharas appeared in the sculptural art of
the upper Mahanadi valley. A four-handed
Durga image, holding Chakra and Trisula,
engaged in fierce battle with
the theriomorphic buffalodemon
Mahisa by riding on
it is fitted to the southern
Parsvadevata niche of the
Bad Jagannath temple,
situated in the Gopalji Math
precinct at Sambalpur, which
is an excellent piece of early
Chauhan art of the 17th
century A.D. As the Trisula
is hold vertically it is the
latest form of Durga,
associating Vaisnavism in
Her Cult.
In another place i.e.
Banei in Sundargarh district
also, we find a rare fourhanded
Durga image in the
Alidha posture amidst loose
sculptures found in the
Kumari temple precinct, on the right bank of
river Brahmani. Here Devi is seen to be putting
her uplifted left leg on the back of the beast
Mahisa, while pressing its head with her lower
left hand so that the head is turned to one side
by that pressure and simultaneously piercing
its neck with the Trisula, which is in her lower
right hand. In the up-raised upper right hand of
goddess Durga is a Khadga, while there is a
Sankha in her upper left hand. Her Vahana lion
is seen to be seated crouching, while biting
the tail of the Mahisa. Here the human figure
of Mahisasura is absent. This image can be
dated to the 7th-8th century A.D. also. Another
Durga image, six-handed but all hands broken
except one right hand, is also found amidst this
temple ruins. The moustached Mahisasura with
sword and shield in hands is lying right on the
back of the lion. His head is slightly raised
and Devi is seen piercing the Trisula on his
waist portion rather than on
the chest or neck. The body
of the goddess is heavily
bedecked with ornaments
like Katimekhala, Udarabandha,
Kankana, Keyura,
Hara, Mukuta, Kundala and
many others. Her Mukuta
deserves special attention. It
is a Jatamukuta, behind
which there is an ovalshaped
Sirascakra formed by
the design of lotus-petals.
This Jatamukuta is adorned
with Kirtimukha heads on
the top. Strings of pearls are
coming out of the mouth of
the Kirtimukha heads from
both the left and right sides
and swallowed by the
central Kirtimukha. From the
mouth of the central Kirtimukha is hanging a
rectangular-shaped flower-design pendant in
a string of pearls. This image of
Mahisasuramardini Durga can be placed in the
10th century A.D.
The Mahisamardini Durga image of
Bausuni in Baudh district about which noted
historian late R.D. Banerji has written is a sixhanded
figure of Devi, exquisitely carved on
red stone. Very peculiarly enough, her Vahana,
Goddess Durga,
Banesvara Temple, Deogaon (Banei)
75
Orissa Review * October - 2004
the lion is absent. The cut-head as well as the
body of the buffalo is lying below and the
kneeling Mahisasura is looking up holding a
sword and a shield. Goddess Durga is seen in
an archer's pose (Alidha), putting her right
raised leg on the Mahisasura and piercing the
long trident (Trisula) by holding it in her right
middle hand into the head of the demon. In her
left upper, middle and lower
hands Durga is holding a
shield (Khetaka), bow
(Dhanu) and snake (Sarpa)
respectively, while a sword
(Khadga) and a wheel
(Cakra) are in her right
upper and lower hands. This
image is enshrined and
worshipped in a separate
temple, constructed in the
Siva temple complex at
Bausuni, on the right bank of
river Mahanadi.
An exquisitely carved
image of eight-handed and
three-eyed Durga image is
found amidst loose
sculptures in the Chandi
temple site at Lalei, situated
on the left bank of river Brahmani, just opposite
Banei town in Sundargarh district. It is carved
on a stone-block measuring around thirty inches
both in height and breadth. Vidyadhara couple
(in the proper left side female and right side
male) with garland in hands is carved in both
sides in the top-corners of the stone slab.' The
theriomorphic composite figure of demon
Mahisa in the human form with the head of a
buffalo is lying below. Goddess Durga is seen
putting her left foot on the body of the demon.
In her upper-most left hand she is pressing the
horn of the demon, while piercing the Sula hold
in her lowest right hand on his neck. Here
goddess Durga is depicted in a warrior pose,
bringing out one arrow from the quiver hanging
on her back in her upper-most right hand. The
long Khadga of her lower-most right hand is
also penetrated into the neck of the buffalo
head. In her second upper right hand is a Sakti,
while in the second, third and lowest left
hands are Khetaka (Shield),
Ghanta (Bell) and Dhanu
(Bow) respectively. Two
lions are biting the body of
the demon in both left and
right sides of the pedestal.
There is a lotus-petalled
Prabhavali behind her head
on the back-slab. A
beautifully carved Karanda
Mukuta is on her head. The
goddess is heavily bedecked
with all ornaments. The
iconographic features date
this image to the pre-
Somavamsi period, i.e. 8th-
9th century A.D.
Another exquisitely carved
image of the eight-handed
Mahisasuramardini Durga is
adorning the northern Parsvadevata niche of
the Banesvara temple at Deogaon, near Banei
also. Devi is seen holding Ankusa, Dhanu,
Sarpa and Khetaka in her four left hands, the
Sarpa seems to be strangling the Mahisasura
by going around his neck and biting the demon
on his face. The right leg of the Mahisasura
has not come out fully from the cut-neck of the
Mahisa, while the fully-exposed left leg is
bitten by the lion in the knee-portion. Devi is
in her usual Alidha posture, seen putting her
left foot on the back of her Vahana, the lion,
while the slightly raised right foot on the back
Ten-handed Durga,
Dadpur, District Kalahandi
76
Orissa Review * October - 2004
of the Mahisa, lying below. In her raised uppermost
right hand is a Khadga, while in her
second upper right hand she is pulling out one
arrow from the quiver hanging on her back from
the right shoulder. The broken top-portion of
the long Trisula is still in her third right hand
and in her fourth right hand is a Cakra. Her
body is bedecked with all sorts of ornaments
and a peculiar Jatabhara is adorning her head.
On the pedestal are foliagedesigns
with a bud in the
central portion. This image
is having all the
iconographic features of the
Somavamsi period, i.e. 11th
century A.D.
In 1990, a beautiful
eight-handed Durga image,
of the size of around fourteen
inches in height and ten
inches in breadth was
discovered at Salebhata in
Balangir district from
underneath the earth in a
mound situated to the left of
the state highway behind the
Dak Bungalow on the right
bank of the river Ang, a
major tributary of river
Mahanadi. This image is
exquisitely carved on red
stone, with a thin layer of
stucco pasted on it. It displays the beauty of
the plastic art that prevailed during the period
of the Panduvamsis and their successors, the
early Somavamsis. The goddess is in the usual
Alidha posture with her right leg on the back
of the buffalo stumbling below and left leg on
the back of a diminutive figure of her Vahana,
the lion. The lion is seen biting the right foot
of the demon Mahisasura who is looking up
while trying to give a tough resistance in the
fight. A long trident held by the goddess in her
third right hand is pierced right into the face of
the demon. A long sword is held by Durga in
her first upper right hand over her head. She is
holding an arrow in her second upper right hand
over her shoulder, while the object in her fourth
right hand (the lowest one) is not clear. In the
left hands, from top to below, objects held by
the Devi are Pasa (noose),
Dhanu (bow), Ankusa and
Khadga. The Khadga (sword)
held by Devi in her fourth
(lowest) hand is very peculiar
in shape. It has a long handle
which is fixed to her wrist
with the help of two rings in
it. She is seen piercing this
sword in the naval-portion of
the Devil. Goddess Durga has
a smiling face. She is wearing
a Jatamukuta on her head. A
long garment which goes
around her shoulders is
hanging upto her knee-level.
The cut head of the buffalo is
lying below near the right foot
of Mahisasura. This image is
heavily bejewelled. At
present, this image is kept in
the Siva temple of Salebhata
and can be iconographically
dated to the 9th century A.D.
An unique image of eight-handed
Mahisamardini Durga, of the height of around
two feet and a half and breadth of eighteen
inches was unearthed a couple of years back
on the back of a rivulet named Suvarnarekha
(Mayabati) at Rampur, situated on the outskirt
of Patnagarh town of Balangir district. Objects
hold by the Goddess in her proper right hands
Kusangei Temple, Kusang, District Balangir
(Circa 11th Century A.D.)
77
Orissa Review * October - 2004
from top to bottom are Khadga, Sula, arrow
and the lowest one in Abhaya mudra, while
objects in proper left hands are Khetaka,
Dhanu, Kunta and Nagapasa. In the proper
right side of the pedestal demon Mahisa in the
theriomorphic buffalo form is already
beheaded, as a result of which trembling down
on its fore-legs, and the anthromorphic form
of the demon coming out from the cut neck of
the buffalo.
The demon is depicted in the kneeling
down position and being attacked by the
goddess, who has plunged the long trident deep
into the face of the Mahisasura while
strangulating his head by putting the serpentnoose
around his neck. Her Vahana, the lion is
seated in the left side of the panel, which seems
quite unusual. The heavy ear-rings hanging from
her ears and the Karanda Mukuta on Devi's
head as well as absence of the Vidyadhara
couple on both the top-most corners of the backslab
suggest an early dating, i.e. 7th-8th century
A.D. for this image. This image was for the
first time reported by learned scholar Dr.
Jadumani Mahapatra.3 8
Another eight-handed Mahisamardini
Durga image is worshipped as Chandi in a
small dilapidated temple of the Triratha order
at Dekhala near Bijepur village, in the
Titilagarh subdivision of Balangir district and
also at Durgeikhol near Narsinghnath.
Besides this eight-handed Durga image
another image of Durga in the Alidha posture
is fitted to the proper left of the doorway to the
inner sanctum of the Siva temple at Salebhata.
It is a six-handed image of Durga. The left leg
of the Devi is on the back of the diminutive
figure of a buffalo, while the right leg is slightly
raised up and placed on the profiled figure of
her Vahana, the lion. No weapon is held by
Mahisasura, which is in a running posture in
between both legs of the Devi, just below. In
her upper right hand, which is touching her hair,
tied as one Jata in a round shape. In her left
middle hand, she is holding a Kapala with Agni
in it. Both the lower hands of Devi are put in a
dancing posture. Durga is seen wearing a Hara
with a bell hanging from its centre as pendant.
It is a peculiar form of Durga iconographically,
so far found in this region. This image is of the
height of around ten inches and breadth of six
inches. This image can be iconographically
dated to the 7th century A.D.
Ten-handed Durga is worshipped as
goddess Kusangei in a temple of the 11th
century, at Kusang in Balangir district, which
temple is a proto-type of Lingaraj temple of
Bhubaneswar, most probably built by the
Somavamsi king Yayati II (circa 1024-1060
A.D.). Patanesvari, enshrined in a temple at
Patnagad is none else than ten-handed Durga
in her Mahisasuramardini form.
Another ten-handed Durga image in her
Mahisasuramardini aspect is found carved on
a rectangular stone-block, having an
Asthadalapadma (eight-petalled lotus) symbol
carved on the pedestal, which denotes it's
relationship with Tantra. It is found in the
southern side of the Somesvara temple at
Balibandha in Sambalpur town.
Goddess Suresvari is worshipped in the
Vana Durga Mantra in the Suresvari temple at
Sonepur. Images of ten-handed dancing Durga
and four-handed Devi sitting in Lalitasana
(Bagala of the Dasamahavidya group) on the
Visvapadma pedestals are fitted to the
Parsvadevata niches of this temple. In the
Parsvadevata niches of Khambesvari temple
at Sonepur images of fourteen-handed Durga,
standing in the Samabhanga and eight-handed
78
Orissa Review * October - 2004
Durga dancing in the Lalita mode are found.
The eight-handed Durga is depicted as dancing
with her right heel raised and all hands arranged
symmetrically. The goddess is holding Vajra,
Sula, arrow, Khadga, small Khetaka, Dhanu,
Parasu and an unidentified object in her hands.
She is wearing Naramundamala, a long garland
of skulls. Sarpas are coiled around her ankles
and wrists as Nupura and Kankana. She is
wearing ornate ear rings and her hair is
arranged in a Jatamukuta. The ends of a scarf
is hanging upto her feet-level. A profiled figure
of her Vahana, the lion is carved on the pedestal
just below her feet. It is an unique image of
goddess Durga in the pacified form belonging
to the Chauhan period, i.e. 18th century A.D.
A four-armed standing figure of pacified
Durga is adorning the northern Parsvadevata
niche of the Siva temple of Bausuni. The
goddess is holding a Sarpa and an Ankusa in
her upper left and right hands respectively,
while the lower right hand is in Varada Mudra.
In her lower left hand is a Padmanada. She is
seen wearing a Dhoti-type garment,
Kuchavandha, Katibandha, Keyura, Kankana,
Hara and also a big garland of rosary beads
hanging upto Her thigh-level. It is a Saumya
aspect of the Devi with a smiling face seen
wearing a Karanda Mukuta and beautiful ear
rings. Her Vahana, a roaring lion is sitting near
her right leg.
Another four-handed standing figure of
Saumya Durga is of the height of about one
feet and a half is found inside the Jagamohana
of the Nilakanthesvara temple at Dadpur in the
Kalahandi district, which can be dated to the
Ganga period, i.e. 12th-13th century A.D.
wearing a Karanda Mukuta, Patra-kundala,
Hara and Katibandha etc. She is seen holding
an Ankusa and a Nilotpala flower in her upper
right and left hands respectively while keeping
lower hands in Varada and Abhaya Mudras.
Her Vahana, a roaring lion in profile is seen
to be standing behind her figure. A ten-handed
Durga image is also found at Dadpur in the
Bhawanipatna sub-division of Kalahandi
district.
With the rise of the Somavamsis in
Western Orissa, the eight-handed and tenhanded
Durga images were installed and
worshipped in the temples as central deities.
An eight-handed Durga image is worshipped
as Chandi in the Chandi temple of Saintala,
where Visnu images as well as temple pillars
depicting scenes from the childhood of Krsna
are kept. Both these Durga images can be taken
to be of the Somavamsi period, i.e. the ninthtenth
century A.D. The most excellent of all
these Durga images is the one having twenty
hands, which has been collected from
Salebhata and now preserved in the Sambalpur
University Museum. The Visnudharmottara
as quoted in the Vachaspatya, describes the
twenty-armed Mahisamardini under the name
of Chandika.39 This Salebhata image can be
taken as a rare one. We get another twentyarmed
Durga image at Bheraghat in the
Jabbalpur district of Madhya Pradesh. The
twenty-armed Durga can be dated to the 11th
Century A.D. The ten-armed and twenty-armed
images can be taken of the period in between
10th-12th century A.D.
During the time of the Chauhans also,
Mahisamardini Durga was worshipped as a
principal deity. We get four-handed
Mahisamardini image in the Jagamohana of
the Samlei temple of Sonepur, and another in
the Gokarnesvara temple precinct of the same
town.
79
Orissa Review * October - 2004
An image of a four-armed Parvati but
seated cross-legged in Padmasana is kept in
the northern Parsvadevata niche of the Siva
temple at Ramgarh in Baud district situated on
the right bank of river Mahanadi. A long
garment is around her neck which is hanging
from both shoulders upto the feet-level. She is
holding Sakti and Dhvaja in her raised upper
left and right hands respectively, while the
lower left and right hands are in Abhaya and
Varada Mudras. The Vahana lion in profile is
carved in the centre of the pedestal in the
running posture.
From the above evidences it can be
surmised that from the pre-historic age till the
present days the worshipped of the supreme
Mother Goddess is prevailing in the upper
Mahanadi valley of Orissa.
References :
1. N.K. Sahu, 'Preliminary Report on Excavations
of the Trisul Mound in Kalahandi District,'
(Article), Satabarshiki Smaranika, (1883-
1983) of the Khariar Sahitya Samitee, 1983,
pp.i-v.
2. T.A. Gopinatha Rao, Elements of Hindu
Iconography, Vol.I, Part-II, pp.103-105ff.
3. V. Mishra, Mahisamardini, Delhi, 1984, p.28;
Memoir of the Archaeological Survey of India,
No.44, 1930, p.4.
4. J.K. Sahu, Odisara Itihas, (History of Orissa in
Oriya), Cuttack, 1987, p.334.
5. John Marshall, M.I.C., Vol.I, p.48 ff.
6. J.N. Banerjea, The Development of Hindu
Iconography, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Third Edition, 1974,
p.489 ff.
7. J.P. Singhdeo, The Early Upland Dwellers of
Mahanadi River Valley, The Balangir Lok
Mahotsav Smaranika - 2003, p.67.
8. O.A. Wall, Sex and Sex Worship in the World,
Inter-india Publications, Delhi, 1979, p.464f.
9. Journal of the U.P. State Archaeological
Department, No.2, pp.7-8 ff.
10. Pradeep K. Behera, Pre-historic Rock Art
pertaining to Fertility Cult and other objects of
Orissa, Pragadhara
11. A. Leroi - Gourhan, The Art of Prehistoric Man
of Western Europe, Pub : Thames and Hudson,
London, 1968.
12. An image of Aditi Uttanapada, Artibus Asiae ,
XIX, New York, 1956, pp.259-270 ff.
13. The Nude Goddess or Shameless Women in
Western Asia, India and South-Eastern Asia,
Artibus Asiae, New York, XXIII, 1968, pp.111-
123ff.
14. D. Desai, Erotic Sculptures of India, Bombay,
1975, p.19f.
15. J.N. Banejea, op.cit, p.489f.
16. S.Tattwananda (Tr. & Ed.) Sri Chandi, Calcutta,
1970, pp.120-123 ff.
17. Dr. Baba Mishra, Headless Goddess of Nuapada
Orissa (A Study of Its Antiquity and Indentify),
The Orissa Historical Research Journal,
Vol.XLVII, No.2, 2004, pp.53-64 ff.
18. Mahabharata, IV-6
19. A.S. Altekar, Catelogue of Gupta Gold Coins in
the Bayana Hoard, p.23.
20. M.K. Dhavalikar, Lajja-Gouri, Bulletin of
Deccan College Research Institute, Vol.40,
Poona, 1979-80, pp.30-35 ff.
21. Markandeya Purana, Devi Mahatmya , 91,
48-9.
22. Banerjea, op.cit, p.490 ff.
23. Taittiriya Aranyaka, x.18
24. Ibid, X 1,7.
25. Mahabharata, IV-6 and VI-23.
26. Markandeya Puran, Ch.91.
27. Markandeya Purana, tr. F.E. Pargiter, Calcutta,
1904, ch.82.
28. H.C. Das, Brahmanical Tantric Art in Orissan
Cult Images.
80
Orissa Review * October - 2004
29. Journal of the Kalinga Historical Research
Society, Vol.II, No.2, pp.107-110ff.
30. A Eschmann, H.Kulke and G.C. Tripathy, The Cult
of Jagannath and The Regional Tradition of
Orissa, Manohar, Delhi, 1978, p.130.
31. B.C. Mazumdar, Orissa in the Making, p.177ff;
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, New
Series, Vol.VII, 1911, pp.443-447ff.
32. J.P. Singh Deo, Cultural Profile of South Kosal,
Gyan Publishing House, Delhi, 1987, p.133
(Foot Note No.84).
33. Orissa District Gazetteers, (Sambalpur),
Cuttack, 1971, pp.546-550.
34. Ibid, p.511
35. J.K. Sahu, "Chauhan Rule in Western Orissa,"
(Article), New Aspects of History of Orissa,
Sambalpur University, 1971, p.36.
36. Letter dated 7th April 1988 of Dr. S.N. Rajaguru
to this researcher.
37. S.N. Rajaguru, Inscriptions of Orissa, Vol.IV,
Bhubaneswar, 1966, p.223f.
38. Dr. Jadumani Mahapatra, An Extant Sculpture of
Mahisamardini Durga at Patnagarh, Balangir
Lok Utsav Smaranika-2003, pp.77-78 ff.
39. T.A. Gopinath Rao, "Elements of Hindu
Inconography ", Vol.I, Part-I, Varanasi, 1971,
p.346.
The researcher lives at VR-23, Unit-6, Bhubaneswar.
State Govt. Signed MoU with Jindal Steel and Power Limited
Jindal Steel and Power Limited (JSPL) signed MoU with State Government on 18.10.2004 to set up
a two million tonne capacity steel plant in Keonjhar district. The MoU also envisages establishment
of a 80,000 tonne capacity ferro alloys plant and a 200 MW captive power plant. The entire project
will cost Rs.4000 crore.
Energy Secretary R.N. Bohidar and Vikrant Gujral, Vice-Chairman and Chief Executive Officer,
JSPL signed the MoU on behalf of the State
Government and JSPL respectively in the presence
of Chief Minister Sri Naveen Patnaik, Chief
Secretary, Shri subas Pani and Executive Vice-
Chairman and MD of JSPL Sri Naveen Jindal.
The proposed project will provide
employment to more than 10,000 people in Keojhar
and Angul districts. The company is contemplating
to increase capacity of the proposed steel plant to
six million tonne per annum in the second phase
with an additional investment of Rs.6,000 crore.
The project report of the enhanced capacity will be submitted to the State Government shortly.
The Chief Minister underscored the need for implementation of a comprehensive rehabilitation
package for the affected families. He said, the State Government expects to raise revenue of Rs.300
crore per annum after commissioning of the plant.
ORISSA REVIEW
VOL. LXI NO. 3 OCTOBER 2004
DIGAMBAR MOHANTY, I.A.S.
Commissioner-cum-Secretary
BAISHNAB PRASAD MOHANTY
Director-cum-Joint Secretary
SASANKA SEKHAR PANDA
Joint Director-cum-Deputy Secretary
Editor
BIBEKANANDA BISWAL
Associate Editor
Debasis Pattnaik
Sadhana Mishra
Editorial Assistance
Manas R. Nayak
Cover Design & Illustration
Hemanta Kumar Sahoo
Manoj Kumar Patro
D.T.P. & Design
The Orissa Review aims at disseminating knowledge and information concerning
Orissa’s socio-economic development, art and culture. Views, records, statistics
and information published in the Orissa Review are not necessarily those of the
Government of Orissa.
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Editorial
God as Divine Mother Durga Madhab Dash ... 1
Origin of Tantricism and Sixty-Four Yogini Cult
in Orissa Dr. Janmejay Choudhury ... 7
Samalei to Sambaleswari - Ashapuri to Samalei Dr. Chitrasen Pasayat ... 10
Shakti Cult in Orissa Balabhadra Ghadai ... 19
The Lion : Mount of Goddess Durga Pradeep Kumar Gan ... 22
Shakta Pitha Bhattarika Pabitra Mohan Barik ... 25
Goddess Kali in Orissan Art : With Special Reference
to Shyamakali at Puri Santosh Kumar Rath ... 27
Lajja-Gouri : The Nude Goddess or Shameless Woman Pradeep Mohanty
- Orissan Examples J.P. Singh Deo ... 32
A Peep into the Candi Text Rajkishore Mishra ... 34
Sakti Worship in Orissan Inscriptions Bharati Pal ... 37
Reminiscence of Gandhiji's Visits to Puri Dr. Binodini Das ... 39
Organic Farming for Sustainable Agriculture Dr. B.B. Mishra
Dr. K.C. Nayak ... 42
Women and Mental-Health : A Rural Scenario Dr. Alhadini Dhir ... 46
Krishi Vigyan Kendra : The Light House for Rural Dr. Ashish Kumar Dash
People Dr. Monoranjan Mishra ... 52
Sarala Dasa, The Originator of the Oriya Literature Debendra Nath Bhoi
Priyadarshini Bakshi ... 57
Palmleaf Manuscript Legacy of Orissa and National
Mission for Manuscripts Dr. C.B. Patel ... 60
Durga Worship in Upper Mahanadi Valley Sasanka S. Panda ... 66
CONTENTS
Ya Devi Sarvabhutesu Matru Rupena Sansthita
Namastasei Namastasei Namastasei Namoh Namah
EDITORIAL Orissa Review
Ya Devi Sarvabhutesu Matru Rupena Sansthita
Namastasei Namastasei Namastasei Namoh Namah
Thorough search and detailed analyses into the origin of the Shakti Cult deftly
denies possible perception of the human mind. Any inference drawn on the basis of
targeted studies carrying various perspectives of the Mother Goddess always forms
a particle of the whole ocean that dissolves all whims and caprices that tend to
trespass principles and order of the society evolved with an objective of peaceful
co-existence. To cite here a saying of the super human sensibility Sri Aurobindo in
his august creation 'Savitri' has reflected "Shakti is the energy principle activating
the descent of Purusha on Prakriti and the ascent of Prakriti on to Purusha."
The observance of the Durga Puja with multi-coloured mood all over the
country signifies the feeling to be identified in the whole with unfatigued juvenile
spirit by accumulating the inner spirit. Durga, acclaimed for her prowess and
strength primarily symbolises the war goddess. She, according to Durga Saptasati,
assumes the forms of Mahakali, Mahalaksmi and Mahasarasvati. These three
entities are different aspects of the same Supreme Power. Mahalaksmi is the
goddess of secular glory and embodies the principle of sustenance and beauty.
Mahakali is emblematic of violence and fury of destruction, dread and horror.
Mahasarasvati is an embodiment of knowledge. These three entities are seen
combiningly as a causative principle of Creation, Protection and Destruction.
Durga is called 'Nihsanga' or without any attachment. Thus, propitiating
Durga plainly evokes on atmosphere rich, happy and resourceful, at the same
time devoid of any attachment on self-interest.
Sprinkling all these impressions on the October issue of Orissa Review, it
has basically been considered as a sacred duty on our part which, we hope, will
provide at least a base for initiating interesting interactions on an issue
warranting further research for attaining spiritual bliss.
Ya Devi Sarvabhutesu Matru Rupena Sansthita
Namastasei Namastasei Namastasei Namoh Namah
